Clinical pharmaceutical scientist

Last updated
Clinical pharmaceutical scientist
WilliamRCarter.jpg
Occupation
Namespharmacist-scientist, [1] apothecary-scientist [2]
Occupation type
 profession
Activity sectors
 academia, industry, government (including regulators), healthcare
Description
CompetenciesTranslational medicine, independent research skills, pharmacy practice, residency or fellowship training
Education required
 Doctor of Pharmacy, often with an academic research certificate, master's or doctorate degree
Related jobs
 scientist, pharmacist, physician-scientist

A clinical pharmaceutical scientist (or pharmacist-scientist) is a licensed, practicing pharmacist who also functions as an independent researcher in the pharmaceutical sciences. Clinical pharmaceutical scientists are a type of clinician scientist, analogous to physician-scientists. [3]

Contents

Terminology

The term clinical pharmaceutical scientist is distinct from the term pharmaceutical scientist, in that a clinical pharmaceutical scientist is a practicing clinical pharmacist involved in science relating to the discovery and/or development of pharmaceuticals, the development of new knowledge improving the use of pharmaceuticals in clinical practice, or any other subfield of pharmaceutical science (e.g. pharmacoeconomics, pharmacokinetics, outcomes research), while a pharmaceutical scientist need not also be a clinician (pharmacist). [4] Thus, all clinical pharmaceutical scientists are pharmaceutical scientists, but not all pharmaceutical scientists are clinical pharmaceutical scientists.

Clinical pharmaceutical scientists are both practicing pharmacists and clinical pharmacologists. [3]

History

Modern conceptualization

Most sources attribute the origination of the term "clinical pharmaceutical scientist" to the 1973–1975 Millis Study Commission on Pharmacy (often referred to simply as the "Millis Commission"). [3] [5] The Millis Commission was so-named after Dr. John (Jack) S. Millis, the commission's chairman. [6] The Millis Commission was tasked with examining the place of pharmacists in the American healthcare system, the state of professional pharmacy education at the time, and the prevalence of prescription drug misuse. [7] The Millis Commission recommended "training skilled pharmacy practitioners in research to increase the number and variety of clinical pharmacists," [8] who were "equally skilled and trained in a science and in pharmacy practice", [8] but did not go as far as to explicitly define the term "clinical pharmaceutical scientist" or its educational requirements. [5] Since the Millis Commission, multiple sources have conceptualized clinical pharmaceutical scientists. [9] The 2003 edition of the Encyclopedia of Clinical Pharmacy defines the clinical pharmaceutical scientist as the following:

A clinical pharmaceutical scientist is an independent investigator with education and training in pharmacotherapeutics who utilizes contemporary research approaches to generate new knowledge relevant to drug behavior in humans, to therapeutic interventions, and/or to patient outcomes. [3]

Notable clinical pharmaceutical scientists

The history of pharmacy contains numerous individuals that dabbled in both clinical pharmacy practice and pharmaceutical science. Many major scientific discoveries in pharmacology were by pharmacists, acting as clinical pharmaceutical scientists (although not necessarily recognized by that term). For example, Friedrich Sertürner was a German pharmacist who discovered and isolated the opiate morphine from opium in 1805. [10]

The American Pharmacy (1852–2002): A Collection of Historical Essays contains a comprehensive history of American pharmacy from the late modern period to the contemporary era. In his essay The Pharmaceutical Science in America, 1852–1902, John Parascandola writes:

Unlike Europe, the United States has never produced practicing pharmacist-scientists of the caliber of Carl Scheele or Joseph Pierre Pelletier, who made important discoveries in the laboratories associated with their pharmacies. It should be noted, however, that the sciences were becoming increasingly specialized by the second half of the 19th century, and the tradition of the apothecary-scientist was on the wane even in Europe by this time. [11]

Education and training

Requirements

A clinical pharmaceutical scientist must have education in both clinical pharmacy and research. Broadly, the clinical pharmaceutical scientist's clinical knowledge is centered around expertise pertaining to pharmacotherapy, with less emphasis on diagnostic skills and nonpharmacologic therapies (e.g. surgery). Clinical pharmaceutical scientists must possess expertise in the pharmaceutical sciences and in the management of drug therapy problems. [12]

To achieve this expertise, clinical pharmaceutical scientists typically pursue education after their professional pharmacy degrees (in the United States, a PharmD is generally a prerequisite). This can involve a 2–3 year postdoctoral fellowship or pursuing graduate degrees (e.g. MS, PhD). [13] Postdoctoral programs tend to emphasize a specific area of pharmaceutical science for the scientist to specialize in, such as pharmacoepidemiology or pharmacogenetics. [14]

Postdoctoral residency training is generally recommended, though is not a prerequisite, for most fellowship programs. [14]

Some programs offer combined PharmD-PhD training. While praised as convenient, time saving, and for growing clinical pharmaceutical science, there has also been concern that the intense requirements of graduate research may take precedence over the clinical curriculum and internship/clerkship opportunities of PharmD training. [14] As one candidate wrote in Pharmacy Times, the duration of combined PharmD-PhD programs can vary, usually lasting 7–8 years in total. [15]

According to Robert Powell, PharmD, of the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (a division of the FDA), pharmacists may serve as principal investigators (PI's) on clinical trials for investigational new drug applications in the United States, provided that they meet the same requirements that every other PI must meet. [16]

Comparison

There are multiple postdoctoral pathways to entering a career as a clinical pharmaceutical scientist. The pathways tend to vary by the time required and the depth of training, with programs of longer duration providing more extensive training. [17]

The shortest program is a graduate certificate in clinical pharmaceutical research, which tend to last one year. These programs provide graduates with the ability to conduct clinical research, though not necessarily design it as principal investigators. Due to the short duration of these programs, there is less time to develop independent research skills. [17]

Master's degree programs in clinical pharmaceutical research typically last 2–3 years, placing more emphasis on designing clinical trials. [17]

Fellowship training can also last 2–3 years, though the training is thought to place more emphasis on independence. Because fellowship training can occur in non-academic environments, fellowships can also prepare individuals to begin careers in the pharmaceutical industry or with federal regulators. Fellowships do not have a didactic curriculum, and can involve additional clinical responsibilities. [17]

The longest program is a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in clinical pharmaceutical research, which can last about 4–5 years. The goals of PhD programs are the same as fellowship training, though the added time provides an even greater depth in a research area of interest, in addition to supplemental didactic curriculum. PhD programs generally do not mandate any clinical responsibilities, [17] though the University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy piloted the addition of a clinical component for their PhD clinical pharmaceutical scientist program. [18]

Careers

Industry

Within the pharmaceutical industry, clinical pharmaceutical scientists can pursue careers as "clinical research officers," also known as "project managers." [19] In these roles, clinical pharmaceutical scientists are intimately involved with designing, conducting, and consulting on clinical trials by pharmaceutical companies. [19] Postdoctoral pharmacy fellowships with pharmaceutical industry sponsors are traditional gateways for pharmacists to enter the industry. [19] Careers for clinical pharmaceutical scientists within the pharmaceutical industry often involve less clinical work, and are more business and/or research intensive. [20] Clinical pharmaceutical scientists work in the areas of drug discovery, drug formulation optimization and pharmacokinetics, pharmacoeconomics, labeling and regulatory compliance, and post-marketing research.[ citation needed ]

Academia

Clinical pharmaceutical scientists working in academia must have expertise in what the American Pharmacists Association calls the "three legs" of academia: scholarship (research), teaching, and service (clinical practice and professional development activities). [21] Clinical pharmaceutical scientists have expertise in both research and clinical pharmacy, which is conducive to a career that demands those skills. The Commission on the Future of Graduate Education in the Pharmaceutical Sciences, appointed in 1996 by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP), has recommended that more American pharmacy schools develop combined PharmD/PhD programs to train clinical pharmaceutical scientists. [22] The AACP Educating Clinical Scientists Task Force has recommended that clinical practice be combined with teaching assistantship for first-year students in clinical pharmaceutical science programs. [23] This would effectively prepare them for all three domains of academia identified by the American Pharmacists Association above.[ citation needed ]

Government

In the United States, clinical pharmaceutical scientists can work as researchers for governmental agencies, such as the Food and Drug Administration and the National Institute of Health. [24]

Private sector

Clinical pharmaceutical scientists working in the community setting face unique challenges. The private sector is focused on individual profitability, rather than performing academic research and disseminating knowledge for the profession itself. [25] This applies to both (non-academic affiliated) hospital and community/retail pharmacy practice, where time and funding constraints limit opportunities for individual research. [25]

Research scope

The research scope of clinical pharmaceutical scientists can be broken into the fields of preclinical, clinical, outcomes, and translational research, with translation research representing the middle ground between preclinical and clinical research. Subjects of interest to clinical pharmaceutical scientists in their respective field may involve the following: [26]

Preclinical research
Clinical research
Translational research
Outcomes research

Duties

The duties of clinical pharmaceutical scientists can be broadly divided into two categories: scientific and clinical duties: [27]

Scientific duties
Clinical duties

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharmacist</span> Healthcare professional

A pharmacist, also known as a chemist in Commonwealth English, is a healthcare professional who specializes in the preparation, dispensing, and management of medications. A pharmacist provides pharmaceutical advice and guidance, often serving as a primary care provider in the community, and offering other services, such as health screenings and immunizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharmacy</span> Clinical health science

Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications, aiming to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of medicines. It is a miscellaneous science as it links health sciences with pharmaceutical sciences and natural sciences. The professional practice is becoming more clinically oriented as most of the drugs are now manufactured by pharmaceutical industries. Based on the setting, pharmacy practice is either classified as community or institutional pharmacy. Providing direct patient care in the community of institutional pharmacies is considered clinical pharmacy.

A Doctor of Pharmacy is a professional doctorate degree. In some countries, it is a proficient graduate degree to practice the profession of pharmacy or to become a clinical pharmacist. In many countries, people with their Doctor of Pharmacy are allowed to practice independently and can prescribe over-the-counter drugs directly to patients that doesn't require prescription in other countries. A PharmD program has significant experiential and/or clinical education components in introductory and advanced levels for the safe and effective use of drugs. Experiential education prepares graduates to be practice-ready, as they already have spent a significant amount of time training in areas of direct patient care and research.

The Master of Pharmacy is a postgraduate degree in pharmacy, awarded upon the completion of postgraduate coursework or an integrated undergraduate-postgraduate curriculum. Typically, this program lasts for four to five years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy</span> Pharmacy college in Kentucky, USA

The University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy is a college of pharmacy located in Lexington, Kentucky. In 2020, U.S. News & World Report recognized the UK College of Pharmacy as one of the nation's top ten pharmacy programs.

Pharmacy residency is education a pharmacist can pursue beyond the degree required for licensing as a pharmacist. A pharmacy residency program allows for the implementation of skill set and knowledge acquired in pharmacy school through interaction with the public either in a hospital setting or community practice. The program is done over a span of about 2yrs after graduation from pharmacy school and licensure as a pharmacist. Pharmacy residency helps improve the resume of a pharmacist so as to increase chances of obtaining employment outside community practice. A 2022 review suggested that there is sufficient evidence that residency develops key competencies for junior pharmacists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Campbell University School of Pharmacy</span> Pharmacy school in North Carolina, U.S.

The Campbell University College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences is an American pharmacy school founded in 1985 by Dean Ronald Maddox and located in Buies Creek, North Carolina. The College is one of seven schools that compose Campbell University. In 2009, the school's name was changed to Campbell University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences.

College of Pharmacy is part of the University of Arizona, a public university in Tucson, Arizona, United States. It is the only pharmacy school at a public Arizona university and one of four health professions colleges at the Arizona Health Sciences Center campus. The college is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education.

Pharmacy in China involves the activities engaged in the preparation, standardization and dispensing of drugs, and its scope includes the cultivation of plants that are used as drugs, the synthesis of chemical compounds of medicinal value, and the analysis of medicinal agents. Pharmacists in China are responsible for the preparation of the dosage forms of drugs, such as tablets, capsules, and sterile solutions for injection. They compound physicians', dentists', and veterinarians' prescriptions for drugs. Pharmacological activities are also closely related to pharmacy in China.

The basic requirement for pharmacists to be considered for registration is often an undergraduate or postgraduate pharmacy degree from a recognized university. In many countries, this involves a four- or five-year course to attain a bachelor of pharmacy or master of pharmacy degree.

Pharmaceutical care is a pharmacy practice model developed in the 1990s that describes patient-centered medication management services performed by pharmacists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">University of Florida College of Pharmacy</span> Pharmacy school in Gainesville, Florida

The University of Florida College of Pharmacy is the pharmacy school of the University of Florida. The College of Pharmacy was founded in 1923 and is located on the university's Gainesville, Florida main campus. The college offers the entry-level Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree as the first professional degree for students entering the profession. The college offered a Working Professional Pharm.D. (WPPD) program for bachelor's-trained pharmacists already in practice with its last cohort of students enrolled in 2016. Additionally, various graduate degrees are offered. The professional program is fully accredited by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education. Since 2011 the college has been offering online degree programs at the graduate level, such as the Forensic Science Program, Pharmaceutical Chemistry Program and Clinical Toxicology Program. In total the College of Pharmacy received over $32 million in total Research Revenues in 2021.

The University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy is the graduate pharmacy school of the University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1878, it offers Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees, as well as a residency training program. The school is one of the university's six schools of the health sciences and is ranked in the top 10 of pharmacy schools according to U.S. News & World Report.

The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences is a graduate-level pharmacy school at the University of California, San Diego, United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy</span>

The Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy is a pharmacy school and an academic division of the University of Toronto. The school is located on the northwestern corner of College Street and University Avenue, placing it across from the Ontario Legislative Building and at the entrance to Queen's Park station. It is also situated near four internationally renowned hospitals—The Hospital for Sick Children, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto General Hospital and Mount Sinai Hospital. It is part of Toronto's Discovery District.

UIC College of Pharmacy at the University of Illinois Chicago is one of the oldest pharmacy schools in the US, and oldest unit of the University of Illinois system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">USC Alfred E. Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences</span>

The USC Alfred E. Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences is the pharmacy school of the University of Southern California, originally established in 1905 as USC College of Pharmacy. On November 17, 2022, the University of Southern California released an announcement stating that the school will be renamed the USC Alfred E. Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences and will receive a $50 million endowment for student scholarships, faculty recruitment and integrating a university-wide research infrastructure related to biomedical innovation across USC’s University Park and Health Sciences campuses. The School is led by Dean Vassilios Papadopoulos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leslie Z. Benet</span>

Leslie 'Les' Zachary Benet is an influential pharmaceutical scientist heading the UCSF's Benet Lab at the Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and recipient of the Remington Medal for distinguished service to American pharmacy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners</span>

The Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) is the largest professional delegation representing the interests of pharmacists within the United States. JCPP represents 13 professional associations in the field of pharmacy, developing consensus policy directives for the profession. It is well known for the 2014 development of "The Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process," which provides broad, consensus guidelines for how clinical pharmacists should practice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Julie A. Johnson</span> American clinical pharmacist

Julie Ann Johnson is an American clinical pharmacist and translational scientist. She currently serves as associate dean for clinical and translational research and holds the Dr. Samuel T. and Lois Felts Mercer Professorship of Medicine and Pharmacology at The Ohio State University College of Medicine. She is also be associate vice president for research at Ohio State. Johnson comes to Ohio State from the University of Florida, where she was dean emeritus of pharmacy and a distinguished professor of pharmacy and medicine in the Department of Pharmacotherapy & Translational Research. For four consecutive years, she was a Clarivate Analytics Highly Cited Researcher in Pharmacology and Toxicology, indicating she was one of the "world's leading scholars in the sciences and social sciences in the preceding decade."

References

  1. ↑ Malloy, Christopher J. (1 February 2009). "Pharmacist-Scientists in Industry and Academia". Pharmacy Careers. Pharmacy & Healthcare Communications, LLC. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  2. ↑ Parascandola 2005, p. 23.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Kroboth, Poloyac & Matzke 2003, p. 174.
  4. ↑ "Introduction to Pharmaceutical Science". American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  5. 1 2 Blouin et al. 1991, p. 257.
  6. ↑ Millis Commission, pp. xv, xix.
  7. ↑ Millis Commission, p. 2.
  8. 1 2 Report of the Study Commission on Pharmacy 1975, pp. 123–125.
  9. ↑ Kroboth, Poloyac & Matzke 2003, p. 176.
  10. ↑ "Friedrich Sertürner (1783–1841)". The Science Museum . Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  11. ↑ Parascandola, John. American Pharmacy (1852–2002): A Collection of Historical Essays. p. 23.
  12. ↑ Blouin et al. 1991, p. 259.
  13. ↑ Blouin et al. 1991, pp. 259–260.
  14. 1 2 3 Blouin et al. 1991, p. 261.
  15. ↑ Hefti, Erik (November 17, 2015). "PharmD PhD Dual-Degree Programs: A Candidate's Perspective on Potential Pitfalls". Pharmacy & Healthcare Communications, LLC. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  16. ↑ "Pharm.D. Pathways to Biomedical Research". National Institute of General Medical Sciences . Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Kroboth, Poloyac & Matzke 2003, pp. 176–177.
  18. ↑ Tortorici, Michael A.; Skledar, Susan J.; Zemaitis, Michael A.; Weber, Robert J.; Smith, Randall B.; Kroboth, Patricia D.; Poloyac, Samuel M. (2007). "A Model for Supporting and Training Clinical Pharmaceutical Scientist PhD Students". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 71 (2): 32. doi:10.5688/aj710232. PMC   1858615 . PMID   17533441.
  19. 1 2 3 Hede, Karyn (June 15, 2007). "Behind the Scenes, Pharmacists Play Key Role in Clinical Research". Science. doi:10.1126/science.caredit.a0700085 . Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  20. ↑ Page, Emma. "Getting started in the pharmaceutical industry". Royal Pharmaceutical Society . Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  21. ↑ Tran, Deanna. "Getting Into the .EDU: Tips for Entering Pharmacy Academia". American Pharmaceutical Association . Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  22. ↑ Triggle, David J.; Miller, Kenneth W. (1999). "Commission on the Future of Graduate Education in the Pharmaceutical Sciences: Final Report". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 63 (2).
  23. ↑ Blouin, Robert A.; Bergstrom, Richard F.; Ellingrod, Vicki L.; Fletcher, Courtney V.; Leff, Richard D.; Morris, Andrew; Okita, Richard T.; Roberts, Jeanette C.; Tracy, Timothy S.; Sagraves, Rosalie; Miller, Kenneth W. (2007). "Report of the AACP Educating Clinical Scientists Task Force". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 71 (4): S05. doi:10.5688/aj7105S05. PMC   2690945 .
  24. ↑ "What are the Pharmaceutical Sciences?". University of California, Irvine . Retrieved 14 June 2017.
  25. 1 2 "Clinical scientists rather than researchers in pharmacy". The Pharmaceutical Journal. 297 (7893). September 22, 2016. doi: 10.1211/PJ.2016.20201731 .
  26. ↑ Kroboth, Poloyac & Matzke 2003, p. 175.
  27. ↑ Kroboth, Poloyac & Matzke 2003, p. 177.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.