Colloquial Welsh prepositions deals with the prepositions (Welsh: arddodiad) of the colloquial Welsh language, the spoken register of the modern Welsh language as spoken in Wales by first-language speakers. This page does not deal with the literary standard forms of the prepositions nor any dialect which may have arisen outside of Wales. Welsh has two standardised forms: Literary Welsh – a conservative language reserved for literary purposes which retains some features of older Welsh; and Colloquial Welsh – the Welsh one will hear being spoken in Welsh speaking areas. For the most part the two languages share prepositions, though for some of them their usages can differ; there are also some which have lost their inflected forms in the colloquial language but is preserved in the literary standard. Colloquial Welsh also shows some variation in initial-consonant mutations, which is explained below, while the literary form retains the "proper" mutations in all cases. Welsh prepositions do (for the most part) perform the same roles as English prepositions but there is variation and these must be learnt as they are encountered. For instance it is often taught that Welsh am means 'for' and i means 'to'; this is not incorrect but am can also mean 'about' or 'at' and i can mean 'for'. The usages given below outline how each preposition is used in modern colloquial Welsh.
Prepositions are words like on, at, to, from, by and for in English. [1] They often describe a relationship, spatial or temporal, between persons and objects. [1] For example, 'the book is on the table'; 'the table is by the window'.
Welsh prepositions come in two categories: simple prepositions (arddodiad godidog) and compound prepositions (arddodiad cyfansawdd); [1] the former are single words, like English on, at, from, to etc. while the latter consist of a simple preposition + some other element (often a noun) like English in front of or in addition to. Compound prepositions are less frequent than simple prepositions and are discussed below.
There are approximately two dozen or so simple prepositions in modern colloquial Welsh. While some have clear-cut and obvious translations (heb ‘without’), others correspond to different English prepositions depending on context (i, wrth, am). As with all areas of modern Welsh, some words are preferred in the North and others in the South.
The main prepositions used in modern colloquial Welsh are (alternative forms in parentheses): [1]
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Most of these (but not all) share the following characteristics: [1]
The majority of Welsh prepositions cause mutation to the following word – the most common, by far, is the soft mutation. Examples:
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Several do not cause any mutation (most notably rhag, rhwng and mewn [1] ), while â, gyda and tua should cause aspirate mutation [1] but in reality they are usually left unmutated [1] (except for set expressions [1] ), since the aspirate mutation is dying out and for many speakers only mutation of c- /k/ is normal while mutation of p- /p/ and t- /t/ is not. [1] Yn ‘in’ alone causes the nasal mutation [1] which also is not as widespread as suggested by the literary standard [1] and is often replaced by the soft mutation. Personal names are not mutated after prepositions but names of places and other nouns are: i ferch ‘to a girl’, o Fangor ‘from Bangor’, but i Dafydd ‘to Dafydd’, not *i Ddafydd [1] (although mutation of personal names can be found in older texts).
When used with a personal pronoun, most prepositions insert a linking syllable before the pronoun. This syllable changes for each preposition and results in an inflection pattern similar to that found in Welsh verbs. Broadly speaking, the endings for inflected prepositions (arddodiad rhagenwol) are as follows: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | -a i | -on ni | |
Second Person | -at ti | -och chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | -o fe/fo | -yn nhw |
Feminine | -i hi |
There is some dialect variation between these endings, particularly with 1st and 2nd pers. sing., which can often end in -o i [1] and -ot ti [1] and 2nd pers. pl. -och chi is often heard as -ach chi. [1] 3rd pers. sing. and 3rd pers. pl. endings are always as shown but almost always omit the pronoun element, leaving the inflectional ending by itself to indicate person: [1]
But note that the 3rd pers. pl. -yn nhw is never shortened in this manner. [1]
These differ from the literary standard where the 1st pers. sing. is -af i; the 1st pers. pl. is -om ni; the 3rd pers. sing. masc. is -o ef and the 3rd. pers. pl. is -ynt hwy. [2] The literary standard also has the alternative 2nd pers. pl. pronoun chwi. [2] Most of these are never encountered in the colloquial language and therefore will not be presented in the inflected forms in this article.
The linking element between the preposition and the ending is more complicated, however. Different prepositions use a different linking element. For example, am inserts -dan- before its endings (amdana i, amdanat ti, amdani hi etc.), [1] while heb uses -dd- (hebdda i, hebddo fo, hebddyn nhw etc.) [1] Rhwng changes its vowel (from w to y) as well as inserting -dd- (rhyngddyn nhw) [1] while some, like at and wrth add the endings with no linking element (ato fe, atoch chi, wrthyn nhw, wrthon ni etc.) [1] and some, like gyda and efo do not inflect at all. [1]
 (ag before vowels [1] ) causes aspirate mutation. [1] It means ‘with’, but note that there are other equivalents to ‘with’ in Welsh (efo, gan and gyda) Use of â/ag is fairly restricted:
Am is a very common preposition in spoken Welsh [1] with a range of English equivalents: [1]
Using am to mean 'about' with verbs has been discussed above. With most other verbs am usually means 'for': [1]
Am also has other meanings in the literary language which are not a feature of colloquial Welsh, such as 'towards'. [2]
Inflected forms of am
The table below gives the inflected forms of am with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | amdana i | amdanon ni | |
Second Person | amdanat ti | amdanoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | amdano fe/fo | amdanyn nhw |
Feminine | amdani hi |
Ar has a number of English equivalents, but usually equates to 'on'.
Inflected forms of ar
The table below gives the inflected forms of ar with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | arna i | arnon ni | |
Second Person | arnat ti | arnoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | arno fe/fo | arnyn nhw |
Feminine | arni hi |
While Welsh at often corresponds to English 'at', the field of scope of Welsh at is far wider.
Some verbs which use at include: [1]
Inflected forms of at
The table below gives the inflected forms of at with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | ata i | aton ni | |
Second Person | atat ti | atoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | ato fe/fo | atyn nhw |
Feminine | ati hi |
Cyn means 'before' in expressions of time, [1] never in spatial expressions, e.g. cyn y Rhyfel 'before the War' or cyn deg o'r gloch 'before 10 o'clock'. It is also used as a conjunction. [1] Cyn does not cause a mutation, nor does it have inflected forms. Examples of cyn:
It is important for anyone learning Welsh to understand that the compound preposition o flaen 'in front of' cannot be used instead of cyn. The two are not interchangeable despite their interchangeability in English in sentences like 'to stand before/in front of the building': [1]
As an adjectival prefix, cyn- always means 'ex-' or 'former'.
Dan (sometimes heard as o dan) causes soft mutation [1] and means 'under': [1] dan y dŵr 'under the water', dan ddylanwad ei rieni 'under the influence of his parents'. The related compound preposition oddidan (also odditan) means 'from under'. [1]
The term dan ofal 'under care', abbreviated to d/o is the norm for 'care of' when addressing letters. [1]
The two most important idioms using dan are: [1]
The unmutated form, tan is now, to all intents and purposes, obsolete in this meaning and has become a separate preposition in its own right and means 'until / till' (note that the form 'til is incorrect in English and is a hypercorrection by those who believe 'till' to be a contraction of 'until').
Inflected forms of dan
The table below gives the inflected forms of dan with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | dana i | danon ni | |
Second Person | danat ti | danoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | dano fe/fo | danyn nhw |
Feminine | dani hi |
Dros has two variants: [1] tros (regarded as particularly literary nowadays [1] ) and drost (still very common in speech all over Wales). Dros causes soft mutation [1] and means:
Idioms using dros tend to be adverbial. Two very common and useful set phrases using dros are: [1]
Inflected forms of dros
The table below gives the inflected forms of dros with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | drosta i | droston ni | |
Second Person | drostat ti | drostoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | drosto fe/fo | drostyn nhw |
Feminine | drosti hi |
Efo (also hefo [1] in some areas of North Wales) does not cause mutation and is a general word meaning 'with' and is restricted to Northern dialects of the spoken language. [1] In the South gyda is always used instead. [1] The only appearance of gyda in the North is in set phrases like gyda'r nos 'in the evening'. Efo and gyda are not, however, always interchangeable as gyda (or its contracted form 'da) is used in the South to express possession; [1] in the North this is not achieved by efo but by gan. [1] The following examples are all Northern dialect where (h)efo can be substituted for gyda in the South:
Efo does not have inflected forms. [1]
Gan (often heard as gyn [1] ) causes soft mutation. [1] It is another Northern dialect word used to express possession and is replaced by gyda in the South. [1] Mae gan Mrs Williams gath fawr 'Mrs Williams has a large cat'. Although gan and gyda are interchangeable in this context, the structure of the sentences differs and it is not as simple as substituting one word for the other. [1] The following example sentence is translated using gan (Northern) and gyda (Southern) and means 'do you have enough money?':
There are, however, other uses for gan not involving possession and are therefore common in both the North and the South: [1]
Some common idioms using gan: [1]
Inflected forms of gan
The table below gives the inflected forms of gan with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | gen i, gyn i | gynnon ni, ganddon ni | |
Second Person | gen ti, gyn ti | gynnoch chi, gennoch chi, ganddoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | gynno fe/fo, ganddo fe/fo | gennyn nhw, ganddyn nhw |
Feminine | gynni hi, ganddi hi |
Ger does not cause a mutation [1] and is used with geographical locations (usually town and city names) to mean 'in the vicinity of': [1]
Ger is related to the term gerbron which means 'before' in the sense of 'in the presence of' or 'for the attention of' and is used with nouns like llys 'court' or bwrdd 'board': [1]
Ger has no inflected forms. [1]
Gyda (gydag before vowels [1] ) causes aspirate mutation [1] and is the general term for 'with' in the South (c.f. efo in the North). With the exception of idioms, it is usually heard as 'da in speech: [1] Oes amser 'da chi i brynu'r tocynnau? 'Have you got time to buy the tickets?'
Gyda/gydag is used in the South to show possession, as gan is used in the North, [1] but their forms differ, compare the following sentence – 'do you have enough food?':
Gyda/gydag does not have inflected forms, [1] so gyda fi, gyda ti, gyda nhw but note that 'with him' can be either (gy)da fe or (gy)dag e. [1]
Heb causes soft mutation [1] and in its primary meaning, heb means 'without': [1] heb arian 'without money', peidiwch mynd hebdda i! 'don't go without me!'.
Heb can be used with a verbal-noun to make a negative construction in the perfect tense – equivalent to ddim wedi: [1] Dan ni heb benderfynu 'We haven't decided' (= Dan ni ddim wedi penderfynu); Mae o heb fynd eto 'He hasn't gone yet' (= Dydy o ddim wedi mynd eto).
Heb + possessive adjective + verbal-noun corresponds to 'which/who has/have not been' or an adjectival 'un....ed': [1] pobol heb eu cofrestru 'people who have not been registered / unregistered people' [lit. 'people without their registering']; pryd o fwyd heb ei fwyta 'an uneaten meal' [lit. 'a meal of food without its eating'].
Some idioms using heb: [1]
Inflected forms of heb
The table below gives the inflected forms of heb with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | hebdda i | hebddon ni | |
Second Person | hebddat ti | hebddoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | hebddo fe/fo | hebddyn nhw |
Feminine | hebddi hi |
Hyd causes soft mutation [1] and has the following meanings:
Pronouns are not normally used with this preposition. [1]
The following are all commonly used idioms using hyd, [1] though it is not strictly a preposition in all cases: [1]
Hyd does not have inflected forms. [1]
I causes soft mutation [1] and often, but by no means always, corresponds to English 'to'. [1] It is possibly the most frequently used preposition in the spoken Welsh language. [1]
I corresponds to English 'to' in the following senses: [1]
Other common uses for i which do not correspond to 'to': [1]
When i follows a verb its meaning usually parallels English but the English preposition can often be omitted. [1] The word gofyn 'to ask' must also take i which may be unexpected by English speakers. [1]
The idiom rhoi gwybod i means 'inform' or 'let..... know': [1]
The idiom yn dal i is used to mean 'still ....ing': [1]
Even though i can cover 'into' (i'r tŷ '(in)to the house'; i Gymru '(in)to Wales' etc.) the expanded form i mewn i (and rarely i fewn i) can be used where this is the central idea or where it is emphasised: [1]
Inflected forms of i
The table below gives the inflected forms of i with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | i mi, imi; i fi | i ni, inni | |
Second Person | i ti | i chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | iddo fe/fo | iddyn nhw |
Feminine | iddi hi |
Notes: [1]
Mewn does not cause mutation [1] and should not be confused with i mewn. It means 'in' but is only used where the following noun is non-specific. Specific nouns require the use of yn. [1] Compare:
Mewn does not have inflected forms. [1]
O causes soft mutation. [1] It equates to English 'from' and 'of', [1] but care must be taken – o cannot be used for genitive constructions (those showing possession) for which Welsh has a specific method of constructing. Care should also be taken not to confuse the preposition with the pronoun o ('he/him' in the North). O has the following meanings: [1]
Inflected forms of o
The table below gives the inflected forms of o with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | ona i | onon ni | |
Second Person | onat ti | onoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | ono fe/fo | onyn nhw |
Feminine | oni hi |
Notes: [1]
Oddiar (also seen as oddi ar [1] ) causes soft mutation [1] and is a compound of o + ar (with o in its 3rd pers. sing. fem. form). Oddiar also takes the same inflections as ar, [1] e.g. oddiarno fo. It is basically the opposite of ar and describes motion in the opposite direction of ar. [1] It therefore means 'off' in the sense of 'from upon': [1] Cymer dy bethau oddiar y bwrdd, nei di? 'Take your things off the table, will you?'. Oddiar is not used to translate adverbial use of English 'off' ('turn off the TV', 'buzz off'), for which Welsh uses i ffwrdd (North) and bant (South).
Inflected forms of oddiar
The table below gives the inflected forms of oddiar with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | oddiarna i | oddiarnon ni | |
Second Person | oddiarnat ti | oddiarnoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | oddiarno fe/fo | oddiarnyn nhw |
Feminine | oddiarni hi |
Oddiwrth (also oddi wrth [1] ) causes soft mutation [1] and is a compound of o + wrth (with o in its 3rd pers. sing. fem. form). Oddiwrth inflects in the same way as wrth, [1] so oddiwrthi hi etc. It means 'from' but is restricted to sentiments sent from one person to another – the opposite of at: Gaethon ni ddim cerdyn oddiwrth dy reini eleni, naddo? 'We didn't get a card from your parents this year, did we?; or Penblwydd Hapus oddiwrth bawb yn y swyddfa 'Happy Birthday from everyone at the office'.
Where a verb of receiving (like cael) is used – as in the first example above, gan is a possible alternative to oddiwrth. [1]
Inflected forms of oddiwrth
The table below gives the inflected forms of oddiwrth with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | oddiwrtha i | oddiwrthon ni | |
Second Person | oddiwrthat ti | oddiwrthoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | oddiwrtho fe/fo | oddiwrthyn nhw |
Feminine | oddiwrthi hi |
Rhag is a lesser used preposition in colloquial Welsh [1] and its usage is very restricted. [1] Rhag causes no mutations [1] and has the following meanings: [1]
As a prefix, rhag- usually equates to English 'pre-' or 'fore-': rhagfarn 'prejudice', rhagweld 'foresee'. [1] This sense should not be confused with 'before', for which cyn is used, compare:
Inflected forms of rhag
The table below gives the inflected forms of rhag with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | rhagdda i | rhagddon ni | |
Second Person | rhagddat ti | rhagddoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | rhagddo fe/fo | rhagddyn nhw |
Feminine | rhagddi hi |
Note that these inflected forms are often pronounced as rhactha i, rhacthat ti, rhacthi hi etc. [1]
Rhwng, which causes no mutation, [1] means 'between' and its usage is more-or-less the same as its English equivalent. [1] Examples:
Inflected forms of rhwng (which has the stem rhyng-) are used to make idiomatic expressions like Rhyngddat ti a fi... and Rhyngddoch chi a fi... 'Between you and me...'.
Inflected forms of rhwng
The table below gives the inflected forms of rhwng with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | rhyngdda i | rhyngddon ni | |
Second Person | rhyngddat ti | rhyngddoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | rhyngddo fe/fo | rhyngddyn nhw |
Feminine | rhyngddi hi |
Note that these are often heard as rhyngtha i, rhyngthat ti, etc. [1] Also, variants using the stems rhwngdd-, rhynth- and rhyng- are in use. [1]
Tan, which causes soft mutation, means 'until, till' and is found with time expressions: [1]
Tan can also be used when taking leave of someone: [1] Tan yfory, 'te! – 'Till tomorrow, then!', Tan hynny! – 'Till then!', Tan y tro nesa! – 'Till the next time!', Tan Ddydd Llun! – 'Till Monday!' etc.
Where English 'until' is used as a conjunction, that is when it is followed by a whole phrase with a verb in it, then nes is the preferred translation:
However, tan can be heard to be used as a conjunction in some areas, so it is possible to hear (and therefore say) Na i aros tan iddo ffonio; but there are also speakers who would consider this to be substandard [1] or "bad Welsh".
Tan has no inflected forms. [1]
Trwy (also trw and drwy [1] ), which causes soft mutation, [1] means 'through' in the spatial sense, e.g. cyllell boeth trwy fenyn – 'a hot knife through butter', edrych trwy'r twll – 'look through the hole'. Trwy also has other uses:
Inflected forms of trwy
The table below gives the inflected forms of trwy with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | trwydda i | trwyddon ni | |
Second Person | trwyddat ti | trwyddoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | trwyddo fe/fo | trwyddyn nhw |
Feminine | trwyddi hi |
Tua (tuag before vowels [1] ) causes the aspirate mutation [1] and means 'towards' in a spatial sense, [1] but this meaning has been taken over by tuag at in the modern language, except for set expressions like tuag adre 'home(wards)'. Its primary use in the modern colloquial language is for conveying approximation. [1] For example, 'about' with both time and quantity expressions: tua naw o'r gloch – '(at) about nine o'clock', tua pum pwys o datws – 'about five pounds of potatoes'. With expressions of time tua/tuag can be replaced with the compound preposition o gwmpas: o gwmpas naw o'r gloch. Some examples of the use of tua/tuag:
Tua/tuag has no inflected forms. [1]
Wrth causes soft mutation [1] and is almost always heard as wth in normal speech [1] has a number of uses:
Inflected forms of wrth
The table below gives the inflected forms of wrth with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | wrtha i | wrthon ni | |
Second Person | wrthat ti | wrthoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | wrtho fe/fo | wrthyn nhw |
Feminine | wrthi hi |
These inflected forms are routinely shortened to 'tha i, 'that ti etc. in speech in all parts of Wales, [1] especially after forms of dweud/deud:
Some idiomatic uses of wrth: [1]
Yn causes nasal mutation [1] (though soft mutation is often heard instead [1] ) and means 'in'. Yn 'in' is a true preposition and must not be confused with the complement marker particle yn seen after the verb bod (and its many irregular forms). It is only used when a definite (specific) noun follows (c.f. mewn). Yn is therefore often seen preceding the definite article or the names of places: yn y car – 'in the car' or yn Llandudno 'in Llandudno'. Compare the difference between the use of yn and mewn: yn yr ardd 'in the garden' (specific), but mewn gardd 'in a garden' (non-specific).
Nasal mutation after yn
Yn alone of the Welsh prepositions causes the nasal mutation, but it undergoes a change itself depending on what follows. Therefore yn often appears as ym and yng, though ym only appears before a word beginning with m- or mh- and yng only appears before words beginning with ng- or ngh- whether this is the result of mutation or not:
The examples above are all place-names, but the rule holds true for all words following yn. [1] For example, yng nghanol y dre 'in the middle of the town'. Mutation of place names not of Welsh origin (often English) is often avoided, but not always. The following are all possible in colloquial Welsh for 'in Camden' (an area of London):
The phrase 'in Welsh' is always yn Gymraeg, even in the literary language and is never *yng Nghymraeg; it is sometimes heard as yn y Gymraeg, it is because of this definite article being omitted that yn Gymraeg is used and not *yng Nghymraeg. [1]
Inflected forms of yn
The table below gives the inflected forms of yn with their accompanying pronouns: [1]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
First Person | yndda i | ynddon ni | |
Second Person | ynddat ti | ynddoch chi | |
Third Person | Masculine | ynddo fe/fo | ynddyn nhw |
Feminine | ynddi hi |
Note that variants with -d- are often heard instead of -dd-: [1] ynda i, yndo fe etc., as are variants with no linking element: [1] yna i, yno fe etc.
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The morphology of the Welsh language shows many characteristics perhaps unfamiliar to speakers of English or continental European languages like French or German, but has much in common with the other modern Insular Celtic languages: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Cornish, and Breton. Welsh is a moderately inflected language. Verbs conjugate for person, tense and mood with affirmative, interrogative and negative conjugations of some verbs. A majority of prepositions inflect for person and number. There are few case inflections in Literary Welsh, being confined to certain pronouns.
Cornish grammar is the grammar of the Cornish language, an insular Celtic language closely related to Breton and Welsh and, to a lesser extent, to Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic. It was the main medium of communication of the Cornish people for much of their history until the 17th century, when a language shift occurred in favour of English. A revival, however, started in 1904, with the publication of A Handbook of the Cornish Language, by Henry Jenner, and since then there has been a growing interest in the language.
Colloquial Welsh nouns deals with the nouns of the colloquial Welsh language, the spoken register of the modern Welsh language as spoken in Wales by first-language speakers. This page does not deal with the literary standard forms nor any dialect which may have arisen outside of Wales. Welsh has two standardised forms: Literary Welsh – a conservative language reserved for literary purposes which retains some features of older Welsh; and Colloquial Welsh – the Welsh one will hear being spoken in Welsh speaking areas. For the most part the two languages share rules governing nouns, though one may encounter differences. Colloquial Welsh also shows some variation in initial-consonant mutations, which is explained below, while the literary form retains the proper mutations in all cases.
John Selwyn Lloyd known professionally as J. Selwyn Lloyd, is a Welsh-language author of novels for children and young adults.
Colloquial Welsh adjectives deals with the adjectives of the colloquial Welsh language, the spoken register of the modern Welsh language as spoken in Wales by first-language speakers. This page does not deal with the literary standard forms of adjectives nor any dialect which may have arisen outside of Wales. Welsh has two standardised forms: Literary Welsh – a conservative language reserved for literary purposes which retains some features of older Welsh; and Colloquial Welsh – the Welsh one will hear being spoken in Welsh speaking areas. For the most part the two languages share adjectives, though for some of them their usages can differ and the literary register may use alternative spellings as well as preserving gender distinction where it has been lost in the colloquial tongue. The usages given below outline how adjectives are used in modern colloquial Welsh.
The grammar of the Manx language has much in common with related Indo-European languages, such as nouns that display gender, number and case and verbs that take endings or employ auxiliaries to show tense, person or number. Other morphological features are typical of Insular Celtic languages but atypical of other Indo-European languages. These include initial consonant mutation, inflected prepositions and verb–subject–object word order.