The Lao language (orange), the Lao language variety referred to as Isan in Thailand (yellow), and the Thai language (navy blue).
Lao and Central Thai are two closely related languages of the Southwestern branch of Tai languages. Lao falls within the Lao-Phuthai group of Southwestern Tai languages and Thai within the Chiang Saen language group. Lao (including Isan) and Thai, although they occupy separate groups, are mutually intelligible and were pushed closer through contact and Khmer influence, but all Southwestern Tai languages are mutually intelligible to some degree.[1]Isan refers to the local development of the Lao language in Thailand, as it diverged in isolation from Laos, under Thai influence. The Isan language is still referred to as Lao by native speakers.[2] Spoken Lao is mutually intelligible with Thai and Isan to such a degree that their speakers are able to effectively communicate with one another speaking their respective languages. These languages are written with slightly different scripts, the Lao script and Thai script, but are linguistically similar and effectively form a dialect continuum.[3]
Although Thai and Lao (including Isan) are mutually intelligible, Thai speakers without previous exposure to the Isan language encounter several difficulties parsing the spoken language. Isan, written according to Thai etymological spelling, is fairly legible to Thai as the two languages share more than eighty percent cognate vocabulary, similar to the relationship between Spanish and Portuguese as changes in the meanings of terms, retention of archaisms, slightly different grammar and some vocabulary differences blur the close relationship.[4] The relationship is asymmetric, with Isan speakers able to understand spoken and written Thai quite well due to its mandatory use in school and the popularity of Thai media and participation in Thai society, but many Isan students suffer the shock of switching from the Isan language of the home to the Central Thai-only primary school.[5]
False friends
Many Lao terms are very similar to words that are profane, vulgar or insulting in the Thai language, features that are much deprecated. Lao uses ອີ່ (/ʔīː/ and ອ້າຍ/archaic ອ້າຽ (/ʔâːj/), to refer to young girls and slightly older boys, respectively. In Thai, the similarly sounding อี, i (/ʔiː/) and ไอ้, ai (/ʔâj) are often prefixed before a woman's or man's name, respectively, or alone or in phrases that are considered extremely vulgar and insulting. These taboo expressions such as อีตัว "i tua", "whore" (/ʔiːnɔːŋ/) and ไอ้บ้า, "ai ba", "son of a bitch" (/ʔâjbaː/).
False Cognates
Isan
Lao
IPA
Usage
Thai
IPA
Usage
บัก, bak
ບັກ, bak
/bák/
Used alone or prefixed before a man's name, only used when addressing a man of equal or lower socio-economic status and/or age.
บัก, bak
/bàk/
Alone, refers to a "penis" or in the expression บักโกรก, bak khrok, or an unflattering way to refer to someone as "skinny".
หำน้อย, ham noy
ຫຳນ້ອຍ/archaic ຫຳນ້ຽ, ham noy
/hămnɔ̑ːj/
Although ham has the meaning of "testicles", the phrase bak ham noy is used to refer to a small boy. Bak ham by itself is used to refer to a "young man".
หำน้อย, ham noy
/hămnɔ́ːj/
This would sound similar to saying "small testicles" in Thai, and would be a rather crude expression. Bak ham is instead ชายหนุ่ม, chai num (/tɕʰaːjnùm/) and bak ham noy is instead เด็กหนุ่ม, dek num (/dèknùm/) when referring to "young man" and "young boy", respectively, in Thai.
หมู่, mu
ໝູ່, mou
/mūː/
Mu is used to refer to a group of things or people, such as ໝູ່ເຮົາ/ຫມູ່ເຮົາ, mou hao (/mūːháo/), or "all of us" or "we all". Not to be confused for ໝູ/ຫມູmou (/mŭː/), pig.
พวก, phuak
/pʰǔak/
The Isan word หมู่ sounds like the Thai word หมู (/mŭː/), 'pig', in most varieties of Isan. To refer to groups of people, the equivalent expression is พวก, phuak (/pʰǔak/), i.e., พวกเรา, phuak rao (/pʰǔakrào/) for "we all" or "all of us". Use of mu to indicate a group would make the phrase sound like "we pigs".
ควาย, khway
ຄວາຍ/archaic ຄວາຽ, khouay
/kʰúaj/
Isan vowel combinations with the semi-vowel "ວ" are shorted, so would sounds more like it were written as ควย.
ควาย, khway
/kʰwaːj/
Khway as pronounced in Isan is similar to the Thai word ควย, khuay (/kʰúaj/), which is another vulgar, slang word for "penis".
Thai and Lao share a similar phonology, being closely related languages, however, several developments occurred in Lao that clearly distinguish them. Tone, including patterns and quality, is the largest contributing factor and varies widely between varieties of Lao, but together they share splits quite distinct to Standard Thai and other Central Thai speech varieties. There are also several key sound changes that occurred in the Lao language that differentiates it from Thai.
Consonantal differences
Lao lacks the /r/ of formal Thai, replacing it with /h/ or /l/, as well as /t͡ɕʰ/, which is replaced by /s/. Lao also has the consonant sounds /ɲ/ and /ʋ/, which are absent in Thai. Aside from these differences, the consonantal inventory is mostly shared between the two languages.
C1C2 > C1
Unlike Thai, the only consonant clusters that traditionally occur is C/w/, limited in Lao to /kw/ and /kʰw/ but only in certain environments as the /w/ is assimilated into a diphthongization process before the vowels /aː/, /am/, /aːj/ and /a/ thus limiting their occurrence. For example, Isan kwang (กว้าง, ກວ້າງkouang, /kûːəŋ/) is pronounced *kuang (*กว้ง, *ກວ້ງ) but kwaen as in kwaen ban (แกว้นบ้าน, ແກວ່ນບ້ານkhoèn ban, /kwɛ̄ːnbȃːn/), 'to feel at home', has a vowel that does not trigger the diphthongization. The consonant clusters of Proto-Tai had mostly merged in Proto-Southwestern Tai, but clusters were re-introduced with Khmer, Sanskrit, Pali and European loan words, particularly C/l/ and C/r/. Lao simplified the clusters to the first element, but sporadically maintained its orthographic representation as late as the early twentieth century although their pronunciation was simplified much earlier. This was likely an influence of Thai.[6]
In some instances, some loan words are sometimes pronounced with clusters by very erudite speakers in formal contexts or in the speech of Isan youth that is very Thaified, otherwise the simplified pronunciation is more common. Lao speakers, especially erudite speakers may write and pronounce prôkram (ໂປຣກຣາມ, /pròːkràːm/), via French programme (/pʁɔgʁam/), and maitri (ໄມຕຣີ, /májtrìː/) from Sanskrit maitri (मैत्री, /majtriː/) are common, more often than not, they exist as pôkam (ໂປກາມ, /pòːkàːm/) and maiti (ໄມຕີ, /májtìː/), respectively. Similarly, Isan speakers always write and sometimes pronounce, in 'Thai fashion', maitri (ไมตรี, /májtriː/) and prokraem (โปรแกรม, /proːkrɛːm/), via English 'programme' or 'program' (US), but most speakers reduce it to májtiː/ and /poːkɛːm/, respectively, in normal speech.
Reduction of consonant clusters in Lao
Thai
Isan
Lao
Thai
Isan
Lao
Thai
Isan
Lao
ก
/k/
ก
/k/
ກ
/k/
ค
/kʰ/
ค
/kʰ/
ຄ
/kʰ/
ผ
/pʰ/
ผ
/pʰ/
ຜ
/pʰ/
กร
/kr/
กร
คร
/kʰr/
คร
ผล
/pʰl/
ผล
กล
/kl/
กล
คล
/kʰl/
คล
พ
/pʰ/
พ
/pʰ/
ພ
/pʰ/
ข
/kʰ/
ข
/kʰ/
ຂ
/kʰ/
ต
/t/
ต
/t/
ຕ
/t/
พร
/pʰr/
พร
ขร
/kʰr/
ขร
ตร
/tr/
ตร
พล
/pʰl/
พล
ขล
/kʰl/
ขล
ป
/p/
ป
/p/
ປ
/p/
ปร
/pr/
ปร
ปล
/pl/
ปล
Examples of cosonant cluster reduction in Lao
Thai
Isan
Lao
Gloss
เพลง phleng
/pʰleːŋ/
เพลง phleng
/pʰéːŋ/
ເພງ phéng
/pʰéːŋ/
'song'
ขลุ่ย khlui
/kʰlùj/
ขลุ่ย khlui
/kʰūj/
ຂຸ່ຍ khouay
/kʰūj/
'flute'
กลาง klang
/klaːŋ/
กลาง klang
/kàːŋ/
ກາງ kang
/kàːŋ/
'centre' 'middle'
ครอบครัว khropkhrua
/kʰrɔ̑ːp kʰrua/
ครอบครัว khropkhrua
/kʰɔ̑ːp kʰúa/
ຄອບຄົວ khopkhoua
/kʰɔ̑ːp kʰúːa/
'family'
/r/ > /h/
Proto-Southwestern Tai initial voiced alveolar trill /r/ remained /r/ in Thai, although it is sometimes pronounced /l/ in informal environments, whereas Lao changed the sound to the voiceless glottal fricative /h/ in these environments. The sound change likely occurred in the mid-sixteenth century as the Tai Noi orthography after that period has the letter Lao letter 'ຮ' /h/, which was a variant of 'ຣ' /r/ used to record the sound change. The change also included numerous small words of Khmer origin such as hianຮຽນ, /hían/), 'to learn', which is rian (เรียน, /rian/) in Thai, from Khmer riĕn (រៀន, /riən/).
Proto-Southwestern /r/ to /h/ in Lao
PSWT
Thai
Isan
Lao
Gloss
*rim
ริม rim
/rim/
ฮิม him
/hím/
ຮິມ him
/hím/
'edge', 'rim', 'shore' (Lao/Isan)
*rak
รัก rak
/rák/
ฮัก hak
/hāk/
ຮັກ hak
/hāk/
'to love'
*rɔn
ร้อน ron
/rɔ́ːn/
ฮ้อน hon
/hɔ̑ːn/
ຮ້ອນ hon
/hɔ̑ːn/
'to be hot'
*rɯə
เรือ ruea
/rɯa/
เฮือ huea
/hɯ́a/
ເຮືອ hua
/hɨ́ːə/
'boat'
/r/ > /l/
The shift of Proto-Southwestern Tai */r/ to /h/ in Lao was inconsistent, with some factors that prevented the transition. Instead, these situations led to the shift of /r/ to the alveolar lateral approximant /l/, similar as to what occurs in informal, casual Thai. Polysyllabic loan words from Khmer as well as Indic sources such as Khmer and Pali may have seemed too 'foreign' compared to the monosyllabic loan words that may have been regarded as native, somewhat similar to English 'beef', ultimately from French boeuf but fully anglicized in spelling and pronunciation, versus more evidently French loan words such as crème anglaise, which retains a more French-like pronunciation. Thai speakers sometimes use /l/ in place of /r/ in relaxed, basilectal varieties but this is deprecated in formal speech.
rasa (ຣາຊາraxa, /láːsáː/) from Sanskrit rājā (राजा, /raːdʒaː/), 'king', cf. Thai racha (ราชา, /raːtɕʰaː/), 'king'
Lao and Thai both have digraphs, or in the case of Lao ligatures, that consist of a silent /h/ that was historically pronounced at some ancient stage of both languages, but now serves as a mark of tone, shifting the sound to a high-class consonant for figuring out tone. The /h/ may have prevented the assimilation of these words to /h/, as these end up as /l/ in Lao. Similarly, this may have also prevented /r/ to /h/ in Khmer loan words where it begins the second syllable.
rue (ຫຼື/ຫລືlu, /lɯ̌ː/) versus rue (หรือ, /rɯ̌ː/), 'or' (conjunction)
lio (ຫຼີ່ວ/ຫລີ່ວ, /līːw/ versus ri (หรี่, /rìː/), 'to squint' (one's eyes)
samrap (ສຳລັບsamlap, /sămlāp/), 'for' (the purpose of, to be used as, intended as), from Khmer sâmrap (សំរាប់, /sɑmrap/), cf. Thai samrap (สำหรับ, /sǎmráp/)
There are a handful of words where the expected conversion to /h/ did not take place, thus yielding /l/. In some cases, even in the Lao of Laos, this can be seen as historic Siamese influence, but it also may have been conservative retentions of /r/ in some words that resisted this change. For example, Isan has both hap (ฮับ, ຮັບ, /hāp/) and lap (รับ, ລັບ, /lāp/), both of which mean 'to receive' and are cognates to Thai rap (รับ, /ráp/), and the lap variety in Isan and parts of Laos, especially the south, may be due to Thai contact. In other cases, it is because the words are recent loans from Thai or other languages. In Isan, younger speakers often use /l/ in place of /h/ due to language shift.
Proto-Tai */ɟ/ and */ʑ/ had merged into Proto-Southwestern Tai */ɟ/, which developed into /tɕʰ/ in Thai, represented by the Thai letter 'ช'. Only a small handful of Proto-Tai words with */č/ were retained in Proto-Southwestern Tai, represented by the Tai letter 'ฉ', but this also developed into /tɕʰ/ in Thai and most words with 'ฉ' are either Khmer, Sanskrit or more recent loan words from Chinese dialects, particularly Teochew (Chaoshan Min). Thai also uses the letter 'ฌ' which only occurs in a handful of Sanskrit and Pali loan words where it represented /ɟʱ/, but in Thai has the pronunciation /tɕʰ/. Lao has developed /s/ where Thai has /tɕʰ/, with the letter 'ຊ' /s/, but romanized as 'x', is used to represent cognate words with Thai 'ช' or 'ฌ' whereas Thai 'ฉ' is replaced by Lao 'ສ' /s/ in analogous environments.
Isan speakers will sometimes substitute the Thai letter 'ซ' /s/ in place of Thai 'ช' /tɕʰ/ in cognate words, but this is never done to replace 'ฌ' /tɕʰ/ and sometimes avoided in formal, technical or academic word of Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali origins even if the pronunciation is still /s/, although educated Isan speakers and Isan youth may you use /tɕʰ/ due to code-switching or language shift. Similarly, the letter 'ฉ' /tɕʰ/ is usually retained even if it is better approximated by tone and phonology by 'ส' /s/ as is done in similar environments in Lao.
Lao retains a distinction with some words retaining a alveolo-palatal nasal /ɲ/ from the merger Proto-Southwestern Tai */ɲ/ and */ʰɲ/ and some words with /j/ derived from the merger of Proto-Southwestern Tai */j/ and */ˀj/. The change may have persisted into Thai after the adoption of writing, as some words provide clues to their etymology. For example, Proto-Southwestern Tai */ɲ/ and */ʰɲ/ correspond to the Central and Southern Thai spellings 'ญ' and 'หญ' whereas */j/ and */ˀj/ correspond to Central and Southern Thai spellings 'ย' and 'อย', respectively, all of which have merged in pronunciation to /j/ in Thai, although as this pronunciation was likely lost shortly after literacy, not all Thai words have this corresponding spelling. Thai also uses the letter 'ญ' in words of Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali where the source language has /ɲ/ but these words now have /j/ pronunciation.
Lao maintains the distinction with the letters 'ຍ' /ɲ/ and 'ຢ' /j/, but /j/ is a rarer outcome in Lao and most instances of Thai 'ย' and 'ญ' or digraphs 'หย' and 'หญ' will result in Lao 'ຍ' /ɲ/ or 'ຫຽ/ຫຍ' /ɲ/. With a few exceptions, only Proto-Southwestern Tai */ˀj/ yields /j/. Lao, unlike Thai, has also adopted Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali loan words and retains the /ɲ/ pronunciation of the loan source languages, but has also converted the consonantal /j/ into /ɲ/ in borrowings. The Lao letter 'ຍ' also represents /j/, but only in diphthongs and triphthongs as a final element. As the Lao language of Isan is written in Thai according to Thai spelling rules, the phonemic distinction between /j/ into /ɲ/ cannot be made in the orthography, thus Isan speakers write ya 'ยา', which suggests ya (ยา, /jaː/), 'medicine' but is also used for [n]ya (ยา, ຍາ, /ɲáː/), an honorary prefix used to address a person who is same in age as one's grandparents. These are distinguished in Lao orthography, but Isan speakers either use context or a tone mark, as they differ in tone, to differentiate the words.
The Proto-Southwestern Tai cluster *ml was simplified, producing an expected result of /l/ in Thai and /m/ in Lao. The Saek language, a Northern Tai language distantly related to Thai and Lao preserves these clusters. For instance, Proto-Southwestern Tai *mlɯn, 'to open the eyes', is mlong in Saek (มลอง, ມຼອງ, /mlɔːŋ/) but appears as luem (ลืม, /lɯːm/) and muen (มืน, ມືນmun, /mɯ́ːn/) in Lao.[7]
Development of PSWT *ml to Lao /m/ versus Thai /l/
PSWT
Isan
Thai
Lao
Gloss
*mlɯn
มื่น meun
/mɯ̄ːn/
ลื่น leun
/lɯ̂ːn/
ມື່ນ mun
/mɨ̄ːn/
'slippery'
*mlaːŋ
ม้าง mang
/mȃːŋ/
ล้าง lang
/láːŋ/
ມ້າງ mang
/mȃːŋ/
'to destroy', 'to obliterate'
*mlen
เม็น men
/mén/
เล็น len
/len/
ເມັ່ນ mén
/mén/
'louse'
/w/ > /ʋ/
Lao speakers generally pronounce cognates of Thai with initial /w/ as the voiced labiodental approximant /ʋ/, similar to a faint 'v', enough so that the French chose 'v' to transcribe the Lao letter 'ວ' /ʋ/. The letter is related to Thai 'ว' /w/. The sound /ʋ/ is particularly noticeable in the Vientiane and Central Lao dialects, with a strong pronunciation favored by the élite of Vientiane. In Isan, the rapid but forced resettlement of the people of Vientiane and surrounding areas to the right bank greatly boosted the Lao population, but likely led to some dialect leveling, which may explain the prevalence of /ʋ/ throughout the region, regardless of personal Isan dialect. The replacement is not universal, especially in Laos, but a shift towards /w/ is also occurring in Isan due to the persistent pressures of the Thai language since the sound /ʋ/ is considered provincial, being different from Thai, as opposed to Laos where it is the prestigious pronunciation. Due to the difference in pronunciation, the French-based system used in Laos uses 'v' whereas the English-based Thai system of romanization uses 'w', so the Lao city of Savannakhét would be rendered 'Sawannakhet' if using the Thai transcription.
Allophonic /ʋ/ in Lao absent in Thai
Isan
Thai
Lao
Gloss
เวร wen
/wéːn/
เวร wen
/weːn/
ເວນ vén
/ʋéːn/
'sin'
เวียง wiang
/wíaŋ/
เวียง wiang
/wiaŋ/
ວຽງ viang
/ʋíːəŋ/
'walled city'
สวรรค์ sawan
/sáʔ wǎn/
สวรรค์ sawan
/sàʔ wǎn/
ສະຫວັນ/ສວັນ/ສວັນຄ໌ savan
/sáʔ ʋǎn/
'paradise'
หวาน wan
/wǎːn/
หวาน wan
/wǎːn/
ຫວານ van
/ʋǎːn/
'sweet'
วิษณุ wisanu
/wìt sáʔ nù/
วิษณุ wisanu
/wít sàʔ nú/
ວິດສະນຸ/ວິສນຸ vitsanou
/ʋīt sáʔ nū/
'Vishnu'
/k/ > /tɕ/
Another influence of the massive migration of the people of Vientiane to the right bank is the common tendency to replace the voiceless velar plosive /k/ with the voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate /tɕ/. For instance, the people of the city of Khon Chaen, more generally referred to as Khon Kaen (ขอนแก่น, ຂອນແກ່ນKhon Ken, /kʰɔ̆ːnkɛ̄n/) in formal contexts, refer to their city as Khon Chaen (ขอนแจ่น, *ຂອນແຈ່ນ, /kʰɔ̆ːntɕɛ̄n/) in more relaxed settings. In Laos, this is particularly an informal feature specific to Vientiane Lao but is not used in the official written and spoken standard as it is an informal variant, whereas in Isan, it is commonly used but deprecated as a regional mispronunciation. It is also limited to certain words and environments.
Allophonic /tɕ/ in some Lao words absent in Thai
Isan
Thai
Lao
Gloss
เกี้ยว/เจี้ยว kiao/chiao
/kîaw/, /tɕîaw/
เกี้ยว kiao
/kîaw/
ກ້ຽວ kiao
/kîːəw/, /tɕîːəw/
'to woo', 'to flirt'
เกี่ยง/เจียง kiang/chiang
/kíaŋ/, /tɕíaŋ/
เกี่ยง kiang
/kìaŋ/
ກ່ຽງ kiang
/kīːəŋ/, /tɕīːəŋ/
'to argue', 'to disagree'
แก้ม/แจ่ม kaem/chaem
/kɛ̂ːm/, /tɕɛ̂ːm/
แก้ม kaem
/kɛ̂ːm/
ແກ້ມ kèm
/kɛ̂ːm/, /tɕɛ̂ːm/
'cheek'
Vocalic differences
C/w/ diphthongization
Lao innovated a diphthongization that assimilates the /w/ in instances of /kw/ and /kʰw/ in certain environments. This is triggered by the vowels /a/, /aː/, /aːj/ and /am/, but the cluster is retained in all other instances. The /w/ is converted to /uː/ and the vowel is shortened to /ə/. This is not shown in the orthography, as it must have evolved after the adoption of the Lao script in the fourteenth century. Cognate words in Lao where this diphthongization occurs have no alteration in spelling from Thai counterparts. For example, the Thai word for 'to sweep' is kwat (กวาด, /kwàːt/) but is kwat (ກວາດkouat, /kȕat/) and has the suggested pronunciation /kwȁːt/ but is pronounced *kuat (*ກວດkouat). The counterpart of Thai khwaen (แขวน, kʰwɛ̌ːn), 'to hang' (something) is also khwaen (ແຂວນkhwèn, /kʰwɛ̆ːn/) since the vowel /ɛː/ does not trigger diphthongization.
The vowels /a/, /aː/, /aːj/ and /am/ correspond to Thai '◌ั◌', '◌า', '◌าย' and '◌ำ' and the Lao '◌ັ◌', '◌າ', '◌າຽ/◌າຍ' and '◌ຳ'. The clusters that can undergo this transformation are /kw/, Thai 'กว' and Lao 'ກວ' or /kw/, Thai 'ขว' and 'คว and Lao 'ຂວ' and 'ຄວ'. The non-diphthongized pronunciations as used in Thai are also used by some Isan speakers as a result of Thai influence. In Laos, non-diphthongization is not incorrect, but may sound like a Thai-influenced hypercorrection or very pedantic. As it is the normal pronunciation in Laos and Isan, it limits the instances of consonant clusters that are permissible.
Diphthongization of vowels after consonant cluster C/w/
Cluster
Thai
Isan
Lao
Gloss
Suggested Pronunciation
Actual Pronunciation
Suggested Pronunciation
Actual Pronunciation
C/w/-/aː/-[C]
Cวา
Cวา
Cัว, CวC
Cວາ
*Cົວ, *CວC
'wide'
กว้างkwang /kwâːŋ/
กว้างkwang */kwâːŋ/
*ก้วง *kuang /kûaŋ/
ກວ້າງ *kwang */kwâːŋ/
*ກ້ວງkouang /kûːəŋ/
C/w/-/aːj/
Cวาย
Cวาย
*Cวย
Cວາຍ
*Cວຍ
'water buffalo'
ควายkhwai /kʰwaːj/
ควาย *khwai */kʰwáːj/
*ควยkhui /kʰúaj/
ຄວາຍ *khwai */kʰwáːj/
*ຄວຍkhoui /kʰúːəj/
C/w/-/a/-C
CวัC
CวัC
*CวC
CວັC
*CວC
'to scoop' 'to gouge'
ควักkhwak /kʰwák/
ควักkhwak */kʰwāk/
*ควก *khuak /kʰūak/
ຄວັກ *khwak */kʰwāk/
*ຄວກkhouak /kʰūːək/
C/w/-/am/
Cวำ
Cวำ
*Cวม
Cວຳ
*Cວມ
'to capsize a boat'
คว่ำkhwam /kʰwâm/
คว่ำkhwam */kʰwâm/
*ค่วม *khuam /kʰuām/
ຄວ່ຳ *khoam */kʰwām/
*ຄວ່ມkhouam /kʰuːə̄m/
C/w/-/ɛː/C
แCว
แCว
ແCວ
'to hang' (an object)
แขวนkhwaen /kʰwɛ̆ːn/
แขวนkhwaen /kʰwɛ̆ːn/
ແຂວນkhwèn /kʰwɛ̆ːn/
/ua/ > /uːə/
The Thai diphthongs and triphthongs with the component /ua/ undergo a lengthening of the /u/ to /uː/ and shortens the /a/ to /ə/, although the shortened diphthong can sound like /uː/ to Thai speakers. In Thai, this includes the vowels /ua/ represented medially by '◌ว◌' and finally by '◌ัว', /uaʔ/ by '◌ัวะ' and the final triphthong /uaj/ by '◌วย'. Lao has /uːə/ represented medially by '◌ວ◌' and finally by '◌ົວ', /uːəʔ/ by '◌ົວະ' and the final triphthong /uːəj/ by '◌ວຽ/◌ວຍ'. This may have been another innovation, like C/w/ diphthongization, that occurred after the adoption of writing as it is not represented orthographically.
The close back unrounded vowel /ɯ/ is centralized to the close central unrounded vowel /ɨ/ in Lao, which is not found in Thai. This also applies to all variants of /ɯ/ that occur in Thai, i.e., all cognates with instances of Thai /ɯ/ are Lao /ɨ/, including diphthongs and triphthongs that feature this vowel element. Some very traditional dialects of Southern Lao and the Phuan dialect front the vowel all the way to /iː/.
Abugida scripts traditionally do not notate all vowels, especially the short vowel /a/, usually realized as /aʔ/ in Thai and Lao phonology. This especially affects the polysyllabic loan words of Sanskrit, Pali or Khmer derivation. Instances of when or when not to pronounce a vowel have to be learned individually as the presence of the vowel is inconsistent. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma (धर्म, /d̪ʱarma/), which can mean 'dharma', 'moral' or 'justice', was borrowed into Thai as simply tham (ธรรม/tʰam). As a root, it appears as simply tham as in thamkaset (ธรรมเกษตร/tʰamkàʔsèːt/) 'land of justice' or 'righteous land' with the /aʔ/ or thammanit (ธรรมนิตย์/tʰammáʔnít/), 'moral person' with /aʔ/. This is not always justified by etymology, as the terms derive from Sanskrit dharmakṣetra (धर्मक्षेत्र, /d̪ʱarmakʂetra/)—actually signifies 'pious man' in Sanskrit—and dharmanitya (धर्मनित्य, /d̪ʱarmanit̪ja/), respectively, both of which feature a pronounced but unwritten /a/. Lao and most Isan speakers in relaxed environments will pronounce the 'extra' vowel yielding *thammakaset (ธรรมเกษตร, ທັມມະກເສດ/ທັມມະກເສດຣ໌/ທຳມະກະເສດthammakasét, /tʰámmāʔkásȅːt/) and thammanit (ธรรมนิตย์, ທັມມະນິດ/ທັມມະນິຕຍ໌/ທຳມະນິດ, /tʰámmāʔnīt/). There are also instances where Thai has the epenthetic vowel lost in Lao, such as krommathan (กรมธรรม์, /krommaʔtʰan/), 'debt contract', whereas Lao has nativized the pronunciation to kromtham (ກົມທັນ/ກົມທໍາkômtham, //kòmtʰám/). This is an exception, as the extra vowel is a sign of Lao-retained pronunciation such as Thai chit (จิตร, /jìt/), 'paiting' from Sanskrit citra (चित्र, /t͡ʃit̪ra/), which is chit (จิตร, ຈິຕຣ໌/ຈິດ, /t͡ɕít/), chit[ta] (จิตร, ຈິດຕະchitta, /t͡ɕíttáʔ/) or extremely epentheticized chit[tara] (จิตร, ຈິດຕະຣະ/ຈິດຕະລະchittala, /t͡ɕíttáʔlā/ in Isan.
As another feature of Isan that deviates from Thai, it is deprecated. Few Isan people are aware that the stigmatized pronunciations are actually the 'proper' Isan form inherited from Lao. Many of these loan words are limited to academic and formal contexts that usually trigger code-switching to formal Thai, thus Isan speakers may pronounce these words more akin to Thai fashion although to varying degrees of adaptation to Isan pronunciation. Lao speakers also tend to insert epenthetic vowels in normal speech, as opposed to standard Thai where this is less common, thus 'softening' the sentence and making dialogue-less staccato. For instance, the Isan phrase chak noi (จักน้อย, ຈັກນ້ຽ/ຈັກນ້ອຽ/ຈັກນ້ອຍ/tɕʰáknɔ̑ːj/), which means 'in just a bit' is often pronounced chak-ka noy (*จักกะน้อย /*tɕʰǎkkǎʔnɔ̑ːj/, cf. Lao *ຈັກກະນ້ອຍ) but this may be perceived as 'slurred' speech to Thai speakers.
^1 Basilectal Isan pronunciation based on historic Lao usage.
^2 'Lao-ified' pronunciation influenced by formal Thai.
^3 Hypercorrection amongst the educated to approximate Sanskrit pronunciation.
Grammatical differences
Classifiers
Lao Classifiers
Isan
Thai
Lao
Category
คน (ฅน), /kʰón/
คน (ฅน), /kʰōn/
ຄົນ, /kʰón/
People in general, except clergy and royals.
คัน, /kʰán/
คัน, /kʰān/
ຄັນ, /kʰán/
Vehicles, also used for spoons and forks in Thai.
คู่, /kʰūː/
คู่, /kʰûː/
ຄູ່, /kʰūː/
Pairs of people, animals, socks, earrings, etc.
สบับ, /sáʔ bǎp/
ฉบับ, /tɕʰaʔ bàp/
ສະບັບ, /saʔ báp/
Papers with texts, documents, newspapers, etc.
ตัว, /tua/
ตัว, /tua/
ໂຕ, /tòː/
Animals, shirts, letters; also tables and chairs (but not in Lao).
กก, /kǒk/
ต้น, /tôn/
ກົກ, /kók/
Trees. Lao ຕົ້ນ is used in all three for columns, stalks, and flowers.
หน่วย, /nūaj/
ฟอง, /fɔ̄ːŋ/
ໜ່ວຍ, /nūaj/
Eggs, fruits, clouds. ผล (pʰǒn) used for fruits in Thai.
Pronouns
Although all the Tai languages are pro-drop languages, which omit pronouns if their use is unnecessary due to context, especially in informal contexts, they are restored in more careful speech. Lao frequently uses the first- and second-person pronouns and rarely drops them in speech compared to Thai, which can sometimes seem more formal and distant. More common is to substitute pronouns with titles of professions or extension of kinship terms based on age, thus it is very common for lovers or close friends to call each other 'brother' and 'sister' and to address the very elderly as 'grandfather' or 'grandmother'. Isan traditionally uses the Lao-style pronouns, although in formal contexts, the Thai pronouns are sometimes substituted as speakers adjust to the socially mandated use of Standard Thai in very formal events.
To turn a pronoun into a plural, it is most commonly prefixed with mu (ຫມູ່/ໝູ່/mūː/) but the variants tu (ຕູ/tuː/) and phuak (ພວກ/pʰûak/) are also used by some speakers. These can also be used for the word hao, 'we', in the sense of 'all of us' for extra emphasis. The vulgar pronouns are used as a mark of close relationship, such as long-standing childhood friends or siblings and can be used publicly, but they can never be used outside of these relationships as they often change statements into very pejorative, crude or inflammatory remarks.
Person
Isan
Thai
Lao
Gloss
1st
ข้าน้อย khanoi
/kʰȁː nɔ̑ːj/
กระผม kraphom
/kràʔ pʰŏm/
ดิฉัน dichan
/dì tɕʰăn/
ຂ້ານ້ອຍ/ຂ້ານ້ອຽ khanoy
/kʰȁː nɔ̑ːj/
I (formal)
ข้อย khoi
/kʰɔ̏j/
ผม phom
/pʰǒm/
ฉัน
/tɕʰǎn/
ຂ້ອຍ/ຂ້ອຽ khoy
/kʰɔ̏ːj/
I (common)
ข้า kha
/kʰȁː/
ข้า kha
/kʰâː/
ຂ້າ kha
/kʰȁː/
I (informal)
กู ku
/kuː/
กู ku
/kuː/
ກູ kou
/kùː/
I (impolite/vulgar)
ผู้ข้า phukha
/pʰȕː kʰȁː/
ข้าพเจ้า khaphachao
/kʰâː pʰáʔ tɕâw/
ຂ້າພະເຈົ້າ khaphachao
/kʰȁː pʰāʔ tɕâw/
we (formal)
เฮา hao
/háw/
เรา rao
/raw/
ເຮົາ hao
/háw/
we (common)
หมู่เฮา mu hao
/mūː hȃw/
พวกเรา phuak rao
/pʰûak raw/
ພວກເຮົາ phouak hao
/pʰûːək hȃw/
2nd
ท่าน
/tʰāːn/
ท่าน
/tʰâːn/
ທ່ານ
/tʰāːn/
you (formal)
เจ้า chao
/tɕȃw/
คุณ khun
/kʰun/
ເຈົ້າ chao
/tɕȃw/
you (common)
เอ็ง eng
/ʔeŋ/
แก kae
/kɛː/
เอ็ง eng
/ʔeŋ/
ສູ sou
/sŭː/
you (informal)
มึง mueng
/mɯ́ŋ/
มึง mueng
/mɯŋ/
ມຶງ meung
/mɨ́ŋ/
you (impolite/vulgar)
หมู่ท่าน mu than
/mūː tʰāːn/
พวกท่าน phuak khun
/pʰûak tʰâːn/
ພວກທ່ານ phouak than
/pʰûːək tʰāːn/
you (pl., formal)
หมู่เจ้า mu chao
/mūː tɕȃw/
พวกคุณ khun
/pʰuâk kʰun/
ພວກເຈົ້າ phouak chao
/pʰûːək tɕȃw/
you (pl., common)
3rd
เพิ่น phoen
/pʰɤ̄n/
ท่าน than
/tʰâːn/
ເພິ່ນ pheun
/pʰə̄n/
he/she (formal)
เขา khao
/kʰăw/
เขา khao
/kʰăw/
ເຂົາ khao
/kʰăw/
he/she (common)
ลาว lao
/láːw/
ລາວ lao
/láːw/
มัน man
/mán/
มัน man
/man/
ມັນ man
/mán/
it, he/she (offensive if used to refer to a person)
Comparison of Thai with Vientiane Lao and Isan tonal patterns
Tone Class
Inherent Tone
ไม้เอก (อ่)
ไม้โท (อ้)
Long Vowel
Short Vowel
High (Thai/Vientiane)
Low-Rising/Low-Rising
Low-Falling/Middle
High-Falling/Mid-Falling
Low-Falling/Mid-Falling
Low-Falling/Mid-Rising
High (Thai/Isan)
Low-Rising/Low-Rising
Low-Falling/Middle
High-Falling/Low-Falling
Low-Falling/Low-Falling
Low-Falling/High-Falling
Middle (Thai/Vientiane)
Middle/Low-Falling
Low-Falling/Middle
High-Falling/Mid-Falling
Low-Falling/Mid-Falling
Low-Falling/Mid-Rising
Middle (Thai/Isan)
Middle/Middle
Low-Falling/High-Rising
High-Falling/High-Falling
Low-Falling/Low-Falling
Low-Falling/Low-Rising
Low (Thai/Vientiane)
Middle/High-Rising
High-Falling/Middle
High-Rising/High-Falling
High-Falling/High-Falling
High-Rising/Middle
Low (Thai/Isan)
Middle/Mid-Rising
High-Falling/Middle
High-Rising/High-Falling
High-Falling/High-Falling
High-Rising/Low-Falling
Even Thai words with clear cognates in Lao can differ remarkably by tone. Determining the tone of a word by spelling is complicated. Every consonant falls into a category of high, middle or low class. Then, one must determine whether the syllable has a long or a short syllable and whether it ends in a sonorant or plosive consonant and, if there are any, whatever tone marks may move the tone.[8] Thai กาka, crow, has a middle tone in Thai, as it contains a mid-class consonant with a long vowel that does not end in a plosive. In Standard Lao, the same environments produce a low-rising tone /kàː/ but is typically /kâː/ or rising-mid-falling in Western Lao.
Despite the differences in pattern, the orthography used to write words is nearly the same in Thai and Lao, even using the same tone marks in most places, so it is knowing the spoken language and how it maps out to the rules of the written language that determine the tone. However, as the Tai languages are tonal languages, with tone being an important phonemic feature, spoken Lao words out of context, even if they are cognate, may sound closer to Thai words of different meaning. Thai คาkha/kʰaː/, 'to stick' is cognate to Lao ຄາ, which in Vientiane Lao is pronounced /kʰáː/, which may sound like Thai ค้าkha/kʰáː/, 'to trade' due to similarity in tone. The same word in some parts of Isan near Roi Et Province would confusingly sound to Thai ears like ขาkha/khǎː/ with a rising tone, where the local tone patterns would have many pronounce the word with a rising-high-falling heavier on the rising. Although a native Thai speaker would be able to pick up the meaning of the similar words of Lao through context, and after a period of time, would get used to the different tones (with most Lao speech varieties having an additional one or two tones to the five of Thai), it can cause many initial misunderstandings.
Lexical differences
Although the majority of Lao words are cognate with Thai, many basic words used in everyday conversation lack cognates in Thai. Some usages vary only by frequency or register. For instance, the Thai question word 'เท่าไหร่' is cognate with Lao 'ເທົ່າໃດ' /tʰāodaj/, but Lao tends to use a related variant form 'ท่อใด' /tʰɔ̄ːdàj/ and 'ທໍ່ໃດ' /tʰɔ̄ːdàj/, respectively, more frequently, although the usage is interchangeable and preference probably more related to region and person.
In other areas, Lao preserves the older Tai vocabulary. For example, the old Thai word for a 'glass', such as a 'glass of beer' or 'glass of water' was 'จอก' chok/tɕ̀ɔːk/, but this usage is now obsolete as the word has been replaced by Thai 'แก้ว' kaew/kɛ̑ːw/. Conversely, Lao continues to use 'ຈອກ' chok to mean 'glass' (of water) as /tɕ̀ɔ̏ːk/, but Lao 'ແກ້ວ' kéo/kɛ̑ːw/ retains the earlier meaning of Thai 'แก้ว' as 'gem', 'crystal' or 'glass' (material) still seen in the names of old temples, such as 'Wat Phra Kaew' or 'Temple of the Holy Gem'. Nonetheless, a lot of cognate vocabulary is pronounced differently in vowel quality and tone and sometimes consonant sounds to be unrecognizable or do not share a cognate at all. For example, Lao ບໍ່/bɔː/bo is not related to Thai ไม่/mâj/, mai
Lao vocabulary distinct from Thai
English
Isan
Lao
Thai
"no", "not"
บ่, /bɔ́ː/, bo
ບໍ່, /bɔː/, bo
ไม่, /mâj/, mai
"to speak"
เว้า, /wâw/, wao
ເວົ້າ, /vâw/, vao
พูด, /pʰûːt/, phut
"how much"
ท่อใด, /tʰɔ̄ːdaj/, thodai
ທໍ່ໃດ, /tʰɔ̄ːdàj/, thodai
เท่าไหร่*, /tʰâwraj/, thaorai
"to do, to make"
เฮ็ด, /hēt/, het*
ເຮັດ, /hēt/, het
ทำ*, /tʰam/, tham
"to learn"
เฮียน, /hían/, hian
ຮຽນ, /hían/, hian
เรียน, /rian/, rian
"glass"
จอก, /tɕɔ̏ːk/, chok
ຈອກ, /tɕɔ̏ːk/, chok
แก้ว*, /kɛ̂ːw/, kaew
"yonder"
พู้น, /pʰûn/, phun
ພຸ້ນ, /pʰûn/, phoune
โน่น, /nôːn/, non
"algebra"
พีซคณิต, /pʰíːsāʔkʰāʔnīt/, phisakhanit
ພີຊະຄະນິດ/Archaic ພີຊຄນິດ, //, phixakhanit
พีชคณิต, /pʰîːtkʰáʔnít/, phitkhanit
"fruit"
หมากไม้, /mȁːkmâj/, makmai
ໝາກໄມ້, /mȁːkmâj/, makmai
ผลไม้, /pʰǒnláʔmáːj/, phonlamai
"too much"
โพด, /pʰôːt/, phot
ໂພດ, /pʰôːt/, phôt
เกินไป, /kɤːnpaj/, koenbai
"to call"
เอิ้น, /ʔɤ̂n/, oen
ເອີ້ນ, /ʔɤˆːn/, une
เรียก, /rîak/, riak
"a little"
หน่อยนึง, /nɔ̄jnɯ́ŋ/, noi neung
ໜ່ອຍນຶ່ງ/Archaic ໜ່ຽນຶ່ງ, /nɔ̄ːjnɯ¯ŋ/, noi nung
นิดหน่อย, /nítnɔ̀j/, nit noi
"house, home"
เฮือน, /hɯ́an/, heuan
ເຮືອນ*, /hɨ´ːan/, huane
บ้าน*, /bâːn/, ban
"to lower"
หลุด, /lút/, lut
ຫຼຸດ/ຫລຸດ), /lút/, lout
ลด, /lót/, lot
"sausage"
ไส้อั่ว, /sȁjʔua/, sai ua
ໄສ້ອ່ົວ, /sȁjʔūa/, sai oua
ไส้กรอก, /sâjkrɔ̀ːk/, sai krok
"to walk"
ย่าง, /ɲāːŋ/, [n]yang
ຍ່າງ, /ɲāːŋ/, gnang
เดิน, /dɤːn/, doen
"philosophy"
ปรัซญา, /pátsāɲáː/, pratsaya
ປັດຊະຍາ/Archaic ປັຊຍາ, /pátsāɲáː/, patsagna
ปรัชญา, /pràtjaː/, pratya
"oldest child"
ลูกกก, /lûːkkǒk/, luk kok
ລູກກົກ, /lûːkkók/, louk kôk
ลูกคนโต, /lûːkkʰontoː/, luk khon to
"frangipani blossom"
ดอกจำปา, /dɔ̀ːktɕampaː/
ດອກຈຳປາ, /dɔ̏ːktɕampaː/
ดอกลั่นทม, /dɔ̀ːklântʰom/
"tomato"
หมากเล่น, /mȁːklēːn/, mak len
ໝາກເລັ່ນ, /mȁːklēːn/, mak lén
มะเขือเทศ, /mâʔkʰɯ̌ːatʰêːt/, makheuathet
"much", "many"
หลาย, /lǎːj/, lai
ຫຼາຍ, /lǎːj/, lai
มาก, /mâːk/, mak
"father-in-law"
พ่อเฒ่า, /pʰɔ̄ːtʰȁw/, pho thao
ພໍ່ເຖົ້າ, /pʰɔ̄ːtʰȁw/, pho thao
พ่อตา, /pʰɔ̑ːtaː/, pho ta
"to stop"
เซา, /sáw/, sao
ເຊົາ, /sáw/, xao
หยุด, /jùt/, yut
"to like"
มัก, /māk/, mak
ມັກ, /māk/, mak
ชอบ, /tɕʰɔ̂ːp/, chop
"good luck"
โซกดี, /sôːkdiː/, sok di
ໂຊຄດີ, /sôːkdiː/, xôk di
โชคดี, /tɕʰôːkdiː/, chok di
"delicious"
แซบ, /sɛ̂ːp/, saep
ແຊບ, /sɛ̂ːp/, xèp
อร่อย, /ʔàʔrɔ`j/, aroi
"fun"
ม่วน, /mūan/, muan
ມ່ວນ, /mūan/, mouane
สนุก, /sàʔnùk/, sanuk
"really"
อีหลี, /ʔīːlǐː/, ili****
ອີ່ຫຼີ, /ʔīːlǐː/, ili
จริง*, /tɕiŋ/, ching
"elegant"
โก้, /kôː/, ko
ໂກ້, /kôː/, kô
หรูหรา, /rǔːrǎː/, rura
"ox"
งัว, /ŋúa/, ngua
ງົວ, /ŋúa/, ngoua
วัว, /wua/, wua
1 Thai เท่าไหร่ is cognate to Lao ເທົ່າໃດ, thaodai, /tʰāwdaj/.
2 Thai แก้ว also exists as Lao ແກ້ວ,kèo/kɛ̑ːw/, but has the meaning of "gem".
3 Thai ทำ also exists as Lao ທຳ, tham, /tʰám/.
4 Lao ເຮືອນ also exists as formal Thai เรือน, reuan/rɯan/.
5 Thai บ้าน also exists as Lao ບ້ານ, bane, /bȃːn/.
6 Thai จริง also exists as Lao ຈິງ, ching, /tɕiŋ/.
Thai, or Central Thai, is a Tai language of the Kra–Dai language family spoken by the Central Thai, Mon people in Central Thailand and the vast majority of Thai Chinese enclaves throughout the country. It is the sole official language of Thailand.
The Thai script is the abugida used to write Thai, Southern Thai and many other languages spoken in Thailand. The Thai alphabet itself has 44 consonant symbols and 16 vowel symbols that combine into at least 32 vowel forms and four tone diacritics to create characters mostly representing syllables.
Lao, sometimes referred to as Laotian, is the official language of Laos and a significant language in the Isan region of northeastern Thailand, where it is usually referred to as the Isan language. Spoken by over 3 million people in Laos and 3.2 million in all countries, it serves as a vital link in the cultural and social fabric of these areas. It is written in the Lao script, an abugida that evolved from ancient Tai scripts.
Kam Mueang or Northern Thailanguage is the language of the Northern Thai people of Lanna, Thailand. It is a Southwestern Tai language that is closely related to Tai Lue language. Kam Mueang has approximately six million speakers, most of whom live in the native Northern Thailand, with a smaller community of Lanna speakers in northwestern Laos.
Isan or Northeastern Thai refers to the local development of the Lao language in Thailand, after the political split of the Lao-speaking world at the Mekong River at the conclusion of the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893. The language is still referred to as Lao by native speakers.
Tinglish refers to any form of English mixed with or heavily influenced by Thai. It is typically produced by native Thai speakers due to language interference from the first language. Differences from standard native English occur in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. The term was coined in 1970, and several alternative terms have been proposed since its inception, such as Thainglish (1973), Thaiglish (1992), Tinglish (1994), Thinglish (1976), Thenglish (2003), and Tenglish (2012).
Lao script or Akson Lao is the primary script used to write the Lao language and other minority languages in Laos. Its earlier form, the Tai Noi script, was also used to write the Isan language, but was replaced by the Thai script. It has 27 consonants, 7 consonantal ligatures, 33 vowels, and 4 tone marks.
The Shan language is the native language of the Shan people and is mostly spoken in Shan State, Myanmar. It is also spoken in pockets in other parts of Myanmar, in Northern Thailand, in Yunnan, in Laos, in Cambodia, in Vietnam and decreasingly in Assam and Meghalaya. Shan is a member of the Tai–Kadai language family and is related to Thai. It has five tones, which do not correspond exactly to Thai tones, plus a sixth tone used for emphasis. The term Shan is also used for related Northwestern Tai languages, and it is called Tai Yai or Tai Long in other Tai languages. Standard Shan, which is also known as Tachileik Shan, is based on the dialect of the city of Tachileik.
Southern Thai, also known as Dambro, Pak Tai, or "Southern language", is a Southwestern Tai ethnolinguistic identity and language spoken in southern Thailand as well as by small communities in the northernmost Malaysian states. It is spoken by roughly five million people, and as a second language by the 1.5 million speakers of Pattani and other ethnic groups such as the local Peranakans communities, Negritos, and other tribal groups. Most speakers are also fluent in or understand the Central Thai dialects.
Tai Lue or Xishuangbanna Dai is a Tai language of the Lu people, spoken by about 700,000 people in Southeast Asia. This includes 280,000 people in China (Yunnan), 200,000 in Burma, 134,000 in Laos, 83,000 in Thailand and 4,960 in Vietnam. The language is similar to other Tai languages and is closely related to Kham Mueang or Tai Yuan, which is also known as Northern Thai language. In Yunnan, it is spoken in all of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, as well as Jiangcheng Hani and Yi Autonomous County in Pu'er City.
Tai Dam, also known as Black Tai, is a Tai language spoken by the Tai Dam in Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and China.
Phu Thai is a Southwestern Tai language spoken in Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. Although it appears different from the Isan and the Lao languages, it is spoken in areas where these languages are predominant and has been influenced by them. Comparisons of Phu Thai with other Tai languages such as Tay Khang have not yet been done systematically enough to yield convincing results. Another aspect of Phu Thai is its contact with the Katuic languages, a branch of the Austroasiatic languages. Whether in the Phu Thai areas of Central Laos or in more recent locations of Northeastern Thailand, one can find, along with Phu Thai, a few Katuic dialects known locally as Bru, So or Katang. James R. Chamberlain (2012) focusing on anthropological issues describes “the Phou Thay – Brou relationship” as a “symbiosis” and states that “the Phou Thay – Brou relationship has never evolved into a feudal system”.
Phuan or Northeastern Lao is a Tai language spoken in Laos, Thailand and Cambodia.
Tai Tham script is an abugida writing system used mainly for a group of Southwestern Tai languages i.e., Northern Thai, Tai Lü, Khün and Lao; as well as the liturgical languages of Buddhism i.e., Pali and Sanskrit. It is historically known as Tua Tham. In Thailand and Myanmar, the script is often referred to as Lanna script in relation to the historical kingdom of Lan Na situating in the Northern region of modern day Thailand and a part of Shan state in Myanmar. Local people in Northern Thailand also call the script as Tua Mueang in parallel to Kam Mueang, a local name for Northern Thai language. In Laos and Isan region of Thailand, a variation of Tai Tham script, often dubbed Lao Tham, is also known by the locals as To Tham Lao or Yuan script. Tai Tham script is traditionally written on a dried palm leaf as a palm-leaf manuscript.
Proto-Tai is the reconstructed proto-language of all the Tai languages, including modern Lao, Shan, Tai Lü, Tai Dam, Ahom, Northern Thai, Standard Thai, Bouyei, and Zhuang. The Proto-Tai language is not directly attested by any surviving texts, but has been reconstructed using the comparative method.
Jru' is a Mon–Khmer language of the Bahnaric branch spoken in southern Laos. It is also known as "Loven", "Laven" or "Boloven" from the Laotian exonym Laven or Loven, which is derived from the Khmer name for the Boloven Plateau. The Jru' people engage in coffee and cardamom cultivation, as well as other agricultural activities.
Kha is the second consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, kha is derived from the Brahmi letter , which is probably derived from the Aramaic ("Q").
The Tai Noi or Lao Buhan script is a Brahmic script that has historically been used in Laos and Isan since about 1500 CE. The contemporary Lao script is a direct descendant and has preserved the basic letter shapes. The script has mostly dropped out of use in the Isan region of Thailand, due to the Thaification policies of the Thai government, that imposed Central Thai culture such as the Thai script throughout the country.
The Khom script is a Brahmic script and a variant of the Khmer script used in Thailand and Laos, which is used to write Pali, Sanskrit, Khmer and Thai.
Lao is a Tai language spoken by 7 million people in Laos and 23 million people in northeast Thailand. After the conclusion of the Franco-Siamese conflict of 1893, the Lao-speaking world was politically split at the Mekong River, with the left bank eventually becoming modern Laos and the right bank the Isan region of Thailand. Isan refers to the local development of the Lao language in Thailand, as it diverged in isolation from Laos. The Isan language is still referred to as Lao by native speakers.
References
↑ Paul, L. M., Simons, G. F. and Fennig, C. D. (eds.). 2013. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Retrieved from http://www.ethnologue.com
↑ Keyes, Charles F. (1966). "Ethnic Identity and Loyalty of Villagers in Northeastern Thailand". Asian Survey.
↑ Hesse-Swain, C. (2011). "Speaking in Thai, Dreaming in Isan: Popular Thai Television and Emerging Identities of Lao Isan Youth Living in Northeast Thailand" (Master's thesis, Edith Cowan University) (pp. 1–266). Perth, Western Australia.
↑ Draper, John (2010). "Inferring Ethnolinguistic Vitality in a Community of Northeast Thailand". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 31 (2): 135–148. doi:10.1080/01434630903470845. ISSN0143-4632. S2CID145258391.
↑ Davis, G. W. (2015). "The Story of Lao r: Filling in the Gaps". The Journal of Lao Studies, 2(2015), pp. 97-109.
↑ Pittayaporn, P. (2009). "Proto-Southwestern-Tai Revised: A New Reconstruction" Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Vol II. pp. 121–144. Canberra, Australia: Pacific Linguistics.
↑ Campbell, S., and Shaweevongs, C. (1957). The Fundamentals of the Thai Language (5th ed). Bangkok: Thai-Australia Co. Ltd.
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