Conscription in Cuba

Last updated November 13, 2023

Conscription is inscribed in the 1976 Constitution of the Republic of Cuba in article 65, stating that "Defense of the socialist homeland is the greatest honor and the supreme duty of every Cuban citizen."^[1] There is a military presence through all levels of education in Cuba, however the recruiting process begins in secondary school as nationals, both male and female, are able to enlist in the army from the age of 17.^[2]

Conscription is prominent in Cuba's military history as it assists in the understanding of how they built and internally strengthened their martial apparatus. Particularly the establishment of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces in 1959 when Fidel Castro took power saw a systematic restructuring of Cuban defence forces, with a focus on mobilising a large army.^[3] Conscription became an important element in assembling what became the second largest standing military in Latin America throughout the late 1970s to the late 1980s, behind Brazil.^[4] Defining historical events, such as the Angolan Civil War, occurred whilst conscription was a prominent factor in Cuba's military system. The Revolutionary Armed Forces initiated an extensive military intervention in order to assist the leftist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).^{[ citation needed ]} Upon the dispatch of troops to Angola in 1975, conscription had allowed the Cuban armed forces to grow to a population of 117,000.^[3]

The Revolutionary Armed Forces worked towards professionalising the troops by rewarding military development with higher ranks and positions; and modernising their military body by training specialised forces, and promoting the development of knowledge and skill.^[3] This assisted in the expansion of their conscription-based army as it portrayed strength and experience to opposing military forces.^[3]

Cuban conscription until 1991

Cuban nationals were required to serve under the Obligatory Military Service (SMO) system. Under this structure, it was compulsory to complete three years in military service, the militias of territorial troops, or the brigades of production and defence.^[2] The SMO was reinforced by the first Law of Military service which was established in November 1963.^[5]

Despite the more modern inception of conscription in Cuba, discussion of the policy date back to 1869, when the New York Times reported that there was discussion in Havana that conscription would be put in place. Despite this attempt not being fulfilled, it was still reported that it was popular throughout the whole population. From a foreign affairs perspective, it was perceived as an attempt to gain control of Cuban affairs which they were struggling to secure due to external intervention by international counterparts.^[6] It was also not a well-received policy internationally, with the article predicting that Cuba would find a large increase in outward-bound passengers trying to avoid the obligatory service.^[6]

The establishment of the SMO in 1963 immediately benefited the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces as they had a mass influx of troops with diverse skill sets, which allowed for a more experienced army. Additionally, it benefited the nation as it expanded the Cuban workforce as production workers came under the authority of the military.^[3] The services that were available to enlist into under conscription were vast and therefore could cater to certain skillsets. For example, The Special Battalion of Roads were provided with construction equipment such as bulldozers and tractors to help strengthen Cuba's infrastructure.^[3] The members of this military unit were predominately made up of conscripts.^[3] Additionally, under this policy, those who have enlisted could also remain in the reserves of the military from 1 January of their sixteenth year of age to 31 December of their fiftieth year of age.^[7] Under conscription, those who have completed their active military service were also transferred into the reserves, where they were required to complete annual training until they reach the age of 50.^[5] Of these conscripts, those who were in active military service were called "military men", those who remained in the reserves were called "reservists", and those between the ages of 16 and 28 who had enlisted but had not yet been called to active military service were called "Prerecruits".^[7]

Additionally, the introduction of the Law of Social Service in August 1973 outlined that those who had completed their studies at an institution of higher education, in areas including technical, scientific or cultural studies, were required to complete their three years of conscripted military service in military divisions that employed their specialised knowledge and skill.^[7]

Reduction in personnel

Upon the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Cuba became increasingly reliant on Soviet political, economic and military aid, becoming their ally for the Cold War.^{[ citation needed ]} The strength and build-up of personnel in the Cuban army throughout the 1970s and 1980s, facilitated strongly by their conscription policy, was largely aided and enabled by the military support of the Soviet Union.^[4] Thus, when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991 and consequently a loss of an ally, Cuba were unable to support the large military infrastructure that they had built.^{[ citation needed ]} By 1995, the Cuban army had been reduced by half, leaving them with 105,000 active military personnel.^[4] It is evident that a lot of the restructuring which the Cuban military system endured began predominately when the Soviet Union withdrew their aid for Cuba. Without the financial and military source that the Soviets provided, Cuba did not have the facilities or resources to maintain the sheer size of their personnel and the strength of their policies. In 1991, the year that Soviet support dissolved, Cuba altered and reduced the requirements of their conscription policy.

1991-present conscription policy

As of August 1991, the SMO changed to the General Military Service Law and the requirements of active military service were reduced to two years, with enlistment being obligatory between the ages of 16 and 28, however most nationals were not called to service until they were 17.^[5] The explanation that was provided to justify this reduction was that the level of skill and education had improved greatly amongst enlistees and that less training was needed. Additionally, another plausible explanation is that a reduced need for immediate military mobilisation influenced the decrease in obligatory service.^[5] In periods of rest, when the demand for military resources was low, troops are able to join the army reserves. They are also transferred to the reserves once the individual has completed their obligatory service. In this position they are able to be called upon to complete a multitude of tasks for the army until they turn 45 years old.^[2]

The transfer of power from Fidel Castro to his brother Raúl Castro in 2006 led to global discussion about a shift away from Communism in Cuba, resulting in a potential restructuring of military. This restructuring would mean the possible removal of conscription from their policies, and a move towards an all-volunteer force.^[8] Cuba has not shifted from Communism since the leadership transition, and thus the objectives of their military unit have not changed.

Alternatives to military service

Whilst conscription is a rigid policy within Cuba's military system, there are alternative forms of services which conscripts are able to complete, as long as "the corresponding military training is guaranteed".^[9] The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child in 2011 outlined that those in adolescence, who are applicable to be called to action at the age of 18, are able to complete their term of service by participating in duties that are of another nature, such as social or economic roles.^[10] Further information regarding what these specific roles are or what the guidelines are in order to complete this alternative service are not provided by the Cuban government.^[9]

Exemption from military service

Due to the rigid policies of conscription, those who have been declared mentally or physically handicapped by the recruitment board are the only ones that are exempt from military service.^[7] Additionally, in some cases Cuban nationals are able to defer their military service in order to complete their service, however are not exempt.^[7] Once the conscripts are enlisted in the military and are within active service, they are also granted the opportunity to defer their service if they become incapacitated by a sickness, or they are the sole carer of two or more dependents, who are under 21 years of age.^[7]

Conscientious objection

Military law surrounding conscription does not acknowledge any exception for conscientious objection. The importance of a nationalistic commitment to military service is clear, particularly in their constitution which states that, "the defense of the socialist motherland is the greatest honor and the supreme duty of every Cuban."^[1] Despite this, there have been many cases reported of Cuban nationals that have attempted to physically harm themselves to exempt them from obligatory service.^[2] These acts, however, were made punishable in Article 171 of the Cuban Penal Code 1987 stating that a "deprivation of freedom for a period from three months to one year or a fine of one hundred to three hundred cuotas" would be imposed if those subject to military service obstruct the completion of someone else's service, or they themselves fail to fulfil the obliged service requirements.^[9]

Disciplinary regulations

Those conscripted into active military service, whether they are soldiers or civilian workers, are subject to disciplinary regulation if they violate the terms of their conscription or public order which is strongly enforced by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR).^[7] Whilst there are members of the FAR who have voluntarily enlisted, there is a large portion of their military system that is made up of conscripts.^[4] Thus, these disciplinary regulations facilitate the understanding of Cuban Conscription as it monitored their behaviour whilst they were in active and reserved service. Crimes that were considered severe were identified as treason, espionage, cowardice, bribery and fraud.^[7] Particularly cowardice applies to those conscripted in the military service, as these members did not voluntarily enlist, and therefore there have been cases - such as those discussed under 'conscientious objection' - where Cuban nationals have attempted to physically harm themselves in order to exempt them from their military service, something that is punishable by law.^[2] Those that were found guilty of committing these crimes were sentenced to: death; incarceration (for crimes that involved violence); fines; and public criticism which acted as a warning.^[7] Alternatives to those punishments were also enforced, which included: expulsion from the army; demotion; loss of military rights and benefits; or a loss of property.^[7]

Conscription for women

In 1986, the Voluntary Female Military Service was introduced, which allowed women to voluntarily enlist into the military service.^[5] Conscription was, consequently, not applicable to women, however once they enlisted they had to complete a minimum of 2 years of service.^[2] Women were able to work up through the ranks that were offered by the Cuban military, however it was understood that they received limited access to the education and experience that facilitated their ability to receive these promotions.^[5] Additionally, it is a requirement that the women who choose to join the army are not pregnant at the time of enlistment and at any point throughout their service.

Related Research Articles

Conscription is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of near-universal national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s, where it became the basis of a very large and powerful military. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and then transfer to the reserve force.

The Finnish Defence Forces (FDF) (Finnish: Puolustusvoimat, Swedish: Försvarsmakten) are the military of Finland. The Finnish Defence Forces consist of the Finnish Army, the Finnish Navy, and the Finnish Air Force. In wartime, the Finnish Border Guard becomes part of the Finnish Defence Forces.

A soldier is a person who is a member of an army. A soldier can be a conscripted or volunteer enlisted person, a non-commissioned officer, a warrant officer, or an officer.

Military service is service by an individual or group in an army or other militia, air forces, and naval forces, whether as a chosen job (volunteer) or as a result of an involuntary draft (conscription).

In the United States, military conscription, commonly known as the draft, has been employed by the U.S. federal government in six conflicts: the American Revolutionary War, the American Civil War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The fourth incarnation of the draft came into being in 1940, through the Selective Training and Service Act; this was the country's first peacetime draft. From 1940 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the U.S. Armed Forces that could not be filled through voluntary means. Active conscription in the United States ended in 1973, when the U.S. Armed Forces moved to an all-volunteer military. However, conscription remains in place on a contingency basis; all male U.S. citizens, regardless of where they live, and male immigrants, whether documented or undocumented, residing within the United States, who are 18 through 25 are required to register with the Selective Service System. United States federal law also continues to provide for the compulsory conscription of men between the ages of 17 and 44 who are, or who have made a declaration of intention to become, U.S. citizens, and additionally certain women, for militia service pursuant to Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution and 10 U.S. Code § 246.

The Federal Republic of Germany had conscription for male citizens between 1956 and 2011. On 22 November 2010, the German Minister of Defence proposed to the government to put conscription into abeyance on 1 July 2011. The constitution, however, retains provisions that would legalize the potential reintroduction of conscription.

A reservist is a person who is a member of a military reserve force. They are otherwise civilians, and in peacetime have careers outside the military. Reservists usually go for training on an annual basis to refresh their skills. This person is usually a former active-duty member of the armed forces, and they remain a reservist either voluntarily, or by obligation. In some countries such as Israel, Norway, Finland, Singapore, and Switzerland, reservists are conscripted soldiers who are called up for training and service when necessary.

Singapore maintains an active conscription system in accordance with the regulations set by the Government of Singapore, known as National Service (NS). This requires all qualified male Singaporean citizens and second-generation permanent residents to serve a period of active duty military service in the uniformed services.

In Turkey, compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from 21 to 41 years of age. It is 6 months for all males regardless of education degree. Different rules apply to Turks abroad. For Turks with multiple citizenship, the conscription lapses if they have already served in the army of another country.

A military reserve force is a military organization whose members (reservists) have military and civilian occupations. They are not normally kept under arms, and their main role is to be available when their military requires additional manpower. Reserve forces are generally considered part of a permanent standing body of armed forces, and allow a nation to reduce its peacetime military expenditures and maintain a force prepared for war. During peacetime, reservists typically serve part-time alongside a civilian job, although most reserve forces have a significant permanent full-time component as well. Reservists may be deployed for weeks or months-long missions during peacetime to support specific operations. During wartime, reservists may be kept in service for months or years at a time, although typically not for as long as active duty soldiers.

The Sandinista Popular Army (SPA) was the military forces established in 1979 by the new Sandinista government of Nicaragua to replace the Nicaraguan National Guard, following the overthrow of Anastasio Somoza Debayle.

Since the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, fixed-term military service has been compulsory in Israel. The draft laws of the Israel Defense Forces only apply to citizens of three ethnicities: Jews, Druze, and Circassians. As the Druze and Circassian communities are less populous, their women are exempted from the draft laws altogether. Women from the Jewish majority are not exempted from the draft laws, but serve for slightly shorter terms than their male counterparts. Israel does not conscript Arab Muslims and Arab Christians, though men and women from either of these two groups may enlist voluntarily.

Conscription in Russia is a 12-month draft, which is mandatory for all male citizens who are between 18 and 30 years old, with a number of exceptions. Avoiding the draft is a felony under Russian criminal code and is punishable by up to 18 months of imprisonment. Conscripts are generally prohibited from being deployed abroad.

In the United Kingdom, military conscription has existed for two periods in modern times. The first was from 1916 to 1920, and the second from 1939 to 1960. The last conscripted soldiers left the service in 1963.

Conscription in the Russian Empire was introduced by Peter I of Russia. The system was called "conscript obligation".

European countries have had varying policies that confine women and military service or the extent of their participation in the national armed services of their respective countries, especially combatant roles in armed conflicts or hostile environments. While most of the countries have always allowed women to participate in military activities involving no direct aggression with the enemy, most began seeing the value of servicewomen in the armed services during the First World War when they began losing unprecedented numbers of servicemen. In the modern era, many of the European countries allow women to voluntarily pursue a career path or profession in the national armed services of their country as well as permit conscription equality, with minimal or no restrictions at all.

France was the first modern nation state to introduce universal military conscription as a condition of citizenship. This was done in order to provide manpower for the country's military at the time of the French Revolution (1789–1799). Conscription in France continued in various forms for the next two centuries, until being phased out from 1997 to 2001.

Russian Reserve Officer Training system is intended for training commissioned officers from among students of Russian civilian institutions of higher education.

Conscription has never been implemented in China since 1949 as the People's Liberation Army has been able to recruit sufficient numbers voluntarily. Residents of Special Administrative Regions, are exempted from joining the military.

Conscription was used by the Soviet Union for the duration of its existence to bolster military function and operations. Conscription was introduced into what would become the Soviet Union in 1918, almost immediately after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 to strengthen the forces of the Red Army. Following its introduction, conscription remained a constant presence in the Soviet state until its dissolution in 1991. Various policy amendments changed the volume of conscription intakes and the required length of service, with key changes to policy occurring in 1918, 1938 and 1967. Wartime conscription, specifically during World War II, saw a significant increase in conscription intake as well as a broadening of the pool of candidates available to be conscripted. Unlike in countries without a consistent history of conscription, there was relatively little resistance to conscription policy, as the concept was enshrined in the Soviet constitution as a mandatory requirement of citizenship, regardless of identity or status, and was seen as the national duty of all Soviet military-aged men.

References

1 2 "The Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1976 (as Amended to 2002)" (PDF). Retrieved 2019-05-06.
1 2 3 4 5 6 "Cuba | War Resisters' International". www.wri-irg.org. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Perez, Louis A. (1976). "Army Politics in Socialist Cuba*". Journal of Latin American Studies. 8 (2): 251–271. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00021994. ISSN 1469-767X. S2CID 144013492.
1 2 3 4 Walker, Phyllis Greene (1996). "Cuba's Revolutionary Armed Forces: Adapting in the New Environment". Cuban Studies. 26: 61–74. ISSN 0361-4441. JSTOR 24487709.
1 2 3 4 5 6 "Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) Conscription and Personnel Resources". www.globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
1 2 "The Cuban Conscription". The New York Times. 1869. ProQuest 92459457.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 United States. Defense Intelligence Agency. (1979). Handbook on the Cuban Armed Forces. DIA. OCLC 894410189.
↑ Crowther, G. Alexander (Glenn Alexander) (2007). Security requirements for post-transition Cuba. Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1584873006. OCLC 162131410.
1 2 3 Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Cuba: Military service, including legislation, obligations, and alternatives; consequences for refusal". Refworld. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
↑ "Committee on Rights of Child examines report of Cuba". newsarchive.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2019-05-28.

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[:4-1] 1 2 "The Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1976 (as Amended to 2002)" (PDF). Retrieved 2019-05-06.

[:32-2] 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Cuba | War Resisters' International". www.wri-irg.org. Retrieved 2019-05-06.

[:1-3] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Perez, Louis A. (1976). "Army Politics in Socialist Cuba*". Journal of Latin American Studies. 8 (2): 251–271. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00021994. ISSN 1469-767X. S2CID 144013492.

[:12-4] 1 2 3 4 Walker, Phyllis Greene (1996). "Cuba's Revolutionary Armed Forces: Adapting in the New Environment". Cuban Studies. 26: 61–74. ISSN 0361-4441. JSTOR 24487709.

[:2-5] 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) Conscription and Personnel Resources". www.globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2019-05-06.

[NY_Times_1869-6] 1 2 "The Cuban Conscription". The New York Times. 1869. ProQuest 92459457.

[:5-7] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 United States. Defense Intelligence Agency. (1979). Handbook on the Cuban Armed Forces. DIA. OCLC 894410189.

[8] Crowther, G. Alexander (Glenn Alexander) (2007). Security requirements for post-transition Cuba. Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1584873006. OCLC 162131410.

[:6-9] 1 2 3 Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Cuba: Military service, including legislation, obligations, and alternatives; consequences for refusal". Refworld. Retrieved 2019-05-07.

[10] "Committee on Rights of Child examines report of Cuba". newsarchive.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2019-05-28.

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