Coprophilous fungus

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Panaeolus semiovatus var. semiovatus growing from animal dung Panaeolus semiovatus LC0334.jpg
Panaeolus semiovatus var. semiovatus growing from animal dung

A coprophilous fungus (dung-loving fungus) [1] is a type of saprobic fungus that grows on animal dung. The hardy spores of coprophilous species are unwittingly consumed by herbivores from vegetation, and are excreted along with the plant matter. The fungi then flourish in the faeces, before releasing their spores to the surrounding area.

Contents

Life cycle

Coprophilous fungi release their spores to the surrounding vegetation, which is then eaten by herbivores. The spores then remain in the animal as the plants are digested, pass through the animal's intestines and are finally defecated. The fruiting bodies of the fungi then grow from the animal feces. [2] It is essential that the spores of the species then reach new plant material; spores remaining in the feces will produce nothing. As such, some species have developed means of discharging spores a large distance. [3] An example of this is the genus Pilobolus . Fruiting bodies of Pilobolus will suddenly rupture, sending the contents over 2 metres away. [4]

Animal feces provide an environment rich in nitrogenous material as well as various enzymes from the animal's digestive system. The spores themselves survive digestion by being particularly thick-walled, allowing them to germinate in the dung with minimum competition from other organisms. [2] This thick wall is often broken down during digestion, readying the spore for germination. [1] The spores are so hardy that samples of dried dung can later be rehydrated, allowing the fungus to fruit weeks later. [5]

Distribution

The distribution of coprophilous fungi is closely linked to the distribution of the herbivores on which they rely, such as rabbits, deer, cattle, horses and sheep. [2] Some species rely on a specific species for dung; for instance, Coprinus radiatus and Panaeolus campanulatus grow almost exclusively on horse feces, [6] while others, such as Panaeolus sphinctrinus , can grow on any feces or even just particularly fertile soil. [6] Further, some species (such as Conocybe rickenii ) can be found in large numbers in areas where manure has been used as a soil fertilizer, such as in gardens. [7] Some coprophilous fungi are also known to grow from the dung of omnivores (such as Chaetomium globisporum from rat droppings) or even carnivores (such as Chaetomium rajasthanense , from tiger feces). [8]

Mushroom-producing species

Although not all coprophilous fungi produce mushrooms, there are many that do, particularly in the genera Coprinopsis , Panaeolus and Deconica . [1] Known species include:

Related Research Articles

<i>Psilocybe cubensis</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe cubensis, commonly known as the magic mushroom, shroom, golden halo, golden teacher, cube, or gold cap, is a species of psilocybin mushroom of moderate potency whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastraceae and was previously known as Stropharia cubensis. It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation.

<i>Psilocybe semilanceata</i> Species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae, native to Europe

Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, and one of the most potent. The mushrooms have a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. They are yellow to brown, covered with radial grooves when moist, and fade to a lighter color as they mature. Their stipes tend to be slender and long, and the same color or slightly lighter than the cap. The gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed, and they are initially cream-colored before tinting purple to black as the spores mature. The spores are dark purplish-brown en masse, ellipsoid in shape, and measure 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 micrometres.

<i>Pilobolus</i> Genus of fungi

Pilobolus is a genus of fungi that commonly grows on herbivore dung.

<i>Psilocybe tampanensis</i> Psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe tampanensis is a very rare psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. Originally collected in the wild in a sandy meadow near Tampa, Florida, in 1977, the fungus would not be found in Florida again until 44 years later. The original Florida specimen was cloned, and descendants remain in wide circulation. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) produced by the fungus are yellowish-brown in color with convex to conic caps up to 2.4 cm (0.9 in) in diameter atop a thin stem up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long. Psilocybe tampanensis forms psychoactive truffle-like sclerotia that are known and sold under the nickname "philosopher's stones". The fruit bodies and sclerotia are consumed by some for recreational or entheogenic purposes. In nature, sclerotia are produced by the fungus as a rare form of protection from wildfires and other natural disasters.

<i>Panaeolus</i> Genus of fungi

Panaeolus is a genus of small, black-spored, saprotrophic agarics. The word Panaeolus is Greek for "all variegated", alluding to the spotted gills of the mushrooms produced.

<i>Panaeolus semiovatus</i> var. <i>semiovatus</i> Species of fungus

Panaeolus semiovatus var. semiovatus, also known as Panaeolus semiovatus and Anellaria separata, and commonly known as the shiny mottlegill, ringed panaeolus, common fungus of the feces variety, or egghead mottlegill, is a medium-sized buff-colored mushroom that grows on horse dung, and has black spores. Though nonpoisonous, it is generally regarded as inedible and possessing a rather abysmal taste, and a few people experience gastric upset after consumption.

<i>Pilobolus crystallinus</i> Species of fungus

Pilobolus crystallinus, commonly known as the "dung cannon" or "hat thrower", is a species of fungus belonging to the Mucorales order. It is unique in that it adheres its spores to vegetation, so as to be eaten by grazing animals. It then passes through the animals' digestive systems and grows in their feces. Although these fungi only grow to be 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) tall, they can shoot their sporangium, containing their spores, up to 2 m (6.6 ft) away. Due to an increase of pressure in the vesicle, the sporangium can accelerate 0–45 mph in the first millimeter of its flight, which corresponds to an acceleration of an 20000 g. Using a mucus-like substance found in the vesicle of the fungus, the sporangium can adhere itself onto whatever it lands, thus completing its life cycle.

<i>Psilocybe fimetaria</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe fimetaria is a psilocybin mushroom, having psilocybin and psilocin as main active compounds. It grows exclusively on horse and cow dung.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pilobolaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Pilobolaceae are a family of fungi in the Mucorales order. Generally, species in this family have a widespread distribution, although there are some that are restricted to tropical and subtropical regions. This family includes two genera: Pilobolus, and Utharomyces.

<i>Coprinopsis lagopus</i> Species of fungus

Coprinopsis lagopus is a species of fungus in the family Psathyrellaceae. Until 2001, the species was known as Coprinus lagopus; advances in the understanding of phylogenetic relationships between the various coprinoid species led to a major reorganization of that genus. It is a delicate and short-lived fungus, the fruit bodies lasting only a few hours before dissolving into a black ink – a process called deliquescence. The vague resemblance of the young fruit body to the paw of a white rabbit has earned this species the common name harefoot mushroom.

<i>Conocybe rickenii</i> Species of fungus

Conocybe rickenii is a mushroom from the genus Conocybe. Its edibility is disputed, and it has the appearance of a typical little brown mushroom with a small, conical cap, and long, thin stem. In colour, it is generally a cream-brown, lighter on the stem, and it has a thin layer of flesh with no distinct smell or taste. It is a coprophilous fungus, feeding off dung and it is most common on very rich soil or growing directly from dung. It can be found in Europe, Australia and Pacific islands.

<i>Sporormiella</i> Genus of fungi

Sporormiella is a genus of fungi in the phylum Ascomycota whose species can be found worldwide, including the Arctic. It grows primarily on dung but also can be found in soil and plant debris. The exact number of species is debated and can range from 60 to 80 in total depending on the source. A majority of these species are coprophilous, however, there are a few that are endophytes and saprobic.

<i>Psilocybe hispanica</i> Species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe hispanica is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. It produces small brown mushrooms with conical to convex caps up to 10 mm (0.4 in) in diameter and stems 16 to 25 mm long by 0.5 to 1 mm thick. Reported as new to science in 2000, it is only known from the Pyrenees mountain range in northern Spain and southwestern France, where it grows on horse dung in grass fields at elevations of 1,700 to 2,300 m. The mushroom contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin. The possible depiction of this species in the 6,000-year-old Selva Pascuala rock art suggests that it might have been used in ancient religious rituals—the oldest evidence of such usage in prehistoric Europe.

<i>Psilocybe pelliculosa</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe pelliculosa is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have a conical brownish cap up to 2 cm in diameter atop a slender stem up to 8 cm long. It has a white partial veil that does not leave a ring on the stem. American mycologist Alexander H. Smith first described the species in 1937 as a member of the genus known today as Psathyrella; it was transferred to Psilocybe by Rolf Singer in 1958.

<i>Deconica coprophila</i> Species of fungus

Deconica coprophila, commonly known as the dung-loving psilocybe, meadow muffin mushroom, or dung demon, is a species of mushroom in the family Strophariaceae. First described as Agaricus coprophilus by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard in 1793, it was transferred to the genus Psilocybe by Paul Kummer in 1871. In the first decade of the 2000s, several molecular studies showed that the Psilocybe was polyphyletic, and the non-bluing (non-hallucinogenic) species were transferred to Deconica.

<i>Protostropharia semiglobata</i> Species of fungus

Protostropharia semiglobata, commonly known as the dung roundhead, the halfglobe mushroom, or the hemispherical stropharia, is an agaric fungus of the family Strophariaceae. A common and widespread species with a cosmopolitan distribution, the fungus produces mushrooms on the dung of various wild and domesticated herbivores. The mushrooms have hemispherical straw yellow to buff-tan caps measuring 1–4 cm (0.4–1.6 in), greyish gills that become dark brown in age, and a slender, smooth stem 3–12 cm (1.2–4.7 in) long with a fragile ring.

<i>Coprinopsis radiata</i> Species of fungus

Coprinopsis radiata, formerly known as Coprinus radiatus, and commonly known as the miniature woolly inky cap, is a coprophilous fungus that grows on herbivore dung. It is heterothallic.

Triangularia setosa is a member of the Ascomycota, and of the genus Triangularia. This genus is notable for its widespread appearance on the excrement of herbivores, and is therefore seen as a coprophilous fungus. The fungus itself is characteristically dark in colour and produces sac-like perithecium with a covering of hair. Its dispersion involves the ingestion, passage, and projectile ejection of spores. It has preference for colonizing the dung of lagomorphs, such as hares and rabbits.

<i>Psilocybe alutacea</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Psilocybe alutacea is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. It was described in 2006 and is known from Australia and New Zealand. It is coprophilous, growing on animal dung. The fruitbodies have a small conical or convex cap, subdistant gills with an adnate attachment, a slender brown stipe and a faint blueing reaction to damage. As a blueing member of the genus Psilocybe it contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Pegler, p. 162
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  5. Richardson, Michael J. (2001). "Coprophilous fungi from Brazil". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 44 (3): 283–289. doi: 10.1590/S1516-89132001000300010 . ISSN   1516-8913.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Pegler, p. 164
  7. 1 2 3 4 Pegler, p. 163
  8. Lodha, B. C. (December 1964). "Studies on coprophilous fungi. II; Chaetomium". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 30 (1): 163–167. doi:10.1007/BF02046722. PMID   14195246. S2CID   34479763.
  9. Amandeep K, Atri NS, Munruchi K (2015). "Diversity of species of the genus Conocybe (Bolbitiaceae, Agaricales) collected on dung from Punjab, India" (PDF). Mycosphere. 6 (1): 19–42. doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/6/1/4 . Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  10. 1 2 Brodie, Harold J. (1975). The Bird's Nest Fungi. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN   0-8020-5307-6.
  11. 1 2 3 Pegler, p. 165

Further reading