An example of deep water culture in lettuce production.
Deep water culture (DWC) is a hydroponic method of plant production by means of suspending the plant roots in a solution of nutrient-rich, oxygenated water. Also known as deep flow technique (DFT), floating raft technology (FRT), or raceway, this method uses a rectangular tank less than one foot deep filled with a nutrient-rich solution with plants floating in Styrofoam boards on top.[1] This method of floating the boards on the nutrient solution creates a near friction-less conveyor belt of floating rafts.[2] DWC, along with nutrient film technique (NFT), and aggregate culture, is considered to be one of the most common hydroponic systems used today. Typically, DWC is used to grow short-term, non-fruiting crops such as leafy greens and herbs. Supposedly, DWC was invented accidentally in 1998 by a legacy cannabis grower who goes by the name of “Snype." This occurred because “Snype” and his (unnamed) associate had to take a trip to Amsterdam and needed a way to feed their cannabis crop while they were away. They built nutrient and water reservoirs that would keep the plants thoroughly fed in their absence, and thusly the DWC system was born. [citation needed] However, this information is not backed up by any reliable source. English physician John Woodward is usually remembered as the first person to grow plants in water culture, although Woodward did note Robert Boyle was conducting similar experiments. [3] Woodward's work was not specifically with DWC systems, however. This system was revised in 2010 to create RDWC. [4] The large volume of water helps mitigate rapid changes in temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrient solution composition.[5]
Deep water culture has also been used by hobby growers. Net pots, plastic pots with netting to allow roots to grow through their surface, are filled with a hydroponic medium such as Hydroton or [Rockwool] to hold the base of the plant. In some cases net pots are not needed. For Oxygenation (environmental) of the hydroponic solution, an airstone is added. This air stone is then connected to an airline that runs to an air pump.
As the plant grows, the root mass stretches through the rockwool or hydroton into the water below. Under ideal growing conditions, plants are able to grow a root mass that comprises the entire bin in a loosely packed mass. As the plant grows and consumes nutrients the pH and EC of the water fluctuate. For this reason, frequent monitoring must be kept of the nutrient solution to ensure that it remains in the uptake range of the crop. A pH that is too high or too low will make certain nutrients unavailable for uptake by plants. In terms of EC, too low means that there is a low salt content, usually meaning a lack of fertilizer, and an EC that it too high indicates a salt content that could damage the roots of crops. Desired EC depends on the crop that is growing.
Plant Growth Requirements in DWC
A grower utilizing a DWC system has to modify the environment as to provide the proper conditions for optimal growth. Although this is true for any protected-crop production system, such as greenhouses, indoor systems, or vertical farms; utilizing DWC comes with some specific responsibilities that the grower should heed. Most notably, the plants’ roots are suspended in a nutrient solution, opposed to a growing media. This requires special attention to specific parameters which are described below in more detail (oxygen, temperature, pH and nutrient concentration). As in other methods, soils and soilless media can assist in acting as a buffer for potentially harmful agents like disease or water quality concerns. Since the roots are directly cultured in the nutrient solution, the water quality is of the utmost concern.
Plants require oxygen to carry out the process of root respiration that is imperative for healthy growth, such as the uptake of fertilizer salts.[6] The nutrient solution is oxygenated utilizing the injection of gases via various methods. Most commonly, the nutrient solution is oxygenated using “air stones.” Air stones are made from porous materials that, when air is pushed through, creates bubbles. As the bubbles float to the surface, diffusion occurs, and the surrounding water is oxygenated. Respective of the porosity of the material, these bubbles can vary in size. The smaller the bubbles emitted from the air stone, the greater the surface area of the population of bubbles. This leads to a greater rate of diffusion, and thus “microbubble” stones, for example, are far more efficient than casual aquarium stones.[7]
Another way to inject oxygen into the nutrient solution is by using liquid oxygen (LOx). This method is more common in commercial settings due to the increased initial investment. However, it can be an economical choice for mid to large operations. Here, pure oxygen is compressed within a tank, and when released into the nutrient solution, forces a high rate of diffusion and oxygenation. It is possible to reach post-saturation levels with this method.[8]
Water temperature is an important factor in oxygen retention in the nutrient solution. Water is generally chilled to a temperature between 18 and 24°C in order to maintain proper dissolved oxygen concentration since oxygenation solubility in water increases as temperature decreases. Chilling the water also helps to prevent pathogens such as pythium, delays bolting, and can increase yield.[9][10]
Oxygenation can also be achieved by using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which serves the dual purpose of also being a sterilizing agent. However, using the appropriate amounts is very important as root damage can easily occur if used in excess. It is not suitable for reaching the amounts of DO needed for optimal plant growth alone.[11]
Other water quality parameters such as pH, alkalinity, and EC are also imperative to control, and are usually controlled with injectors and cultural techniques. Lettuce, for example, grows best in a pH of 5.6–6.0, EC of 1.1–1.4 dS·m−1, 17mol·m−2·d−1 daily light integral which may consist of a combination of natural and supplemental lighting, air temperature of 24°C day/19°C night, water temperature of 25°C, and dissolved oxygen of >7mg·L−3.[12]
Recirculating Deep Water Culture
Traditional methods using unconnected buckets require each bucket to be tested for pH and conductivity factor (CF) individually. This has led to the creation of Recirculating Deep Water Culture (RDWC) systems. Rather than having individual buckets, RDWC bins are linked together most commonly using a PVC pipe. A pump is also added at the front of the system that pulls water through a line from rear of the system into a control bucket. This return line generally has a spin filter on it that cleans particulate from the water before it reaches the pump. The individual bins, including the control are aerated. The primary disadvantage of RDWC is that disease can spread quickly in these systems which can facilitate the transfer of pathogens from one reservoir to another.[13]
Commercial deep water culture
Commercially, DWC systems usually appear in the form of FRT systems. FRT systems utilize floating rafts in ponds that allow for the roots of the plants to be suspended in a nutrient (fertilizer) solution.[14] Commercial systems are typically constructed in greenhouses, though they can be installed outdoors, under other forms of protection, or completely indoors. Most commercial DWC systems are designed to grow leafy greens such as head lettuce, baby leaf greens, large leaf greens, and herbs. One may also find facilities that utilize DWC to grow hemp and other produce, however, this is less common.
Depending on what type of produce is being grown, the system design and horticultural techniques will change. For head lettuce and other large-leaf greens, seedlings are typically germinated in soilless media cells (such as rockwool or coconut coir) and then transplanted into the floating rafts, which are usually made from low-density plastics such as food-grade polystyrene. For baby leaf lettuce, seeds are often sown and germinated in higher densities in specialized rafts made to contain soilless media. Some of these rafts will be designed with channels that span the raft, supporting higher density and uniform crops, rather than individual cells, which are best for individual or less dense seed sowing.
Hydroponic growing methods do not inherently grow better produce compared to field crops or crops grown in soil. Rather, it is the directly and more intimately controlled environment that leads to better yields. With proper management, a head of lettuce grown in ideal conditions in soil will grow as well as the same variety grown in a hydroponic system.[15]
One advantage that DWC systems have over other forms of hydroponics is that plants may be re-spaced during the growth period, optimizing the growing area in regard to canopy cover and light-use. At germination and transplantation, the seeds and seedlings are far closer together than later on in their life cycle. For example, in head lettuce production the initial spacing of seedlings can include nine plants per square foot, while the final spacing of adult plants will include 3.5 plants per square foot.[16]
The rafts are generally cleaned after each harvest by scrubbing to remove organic matter and applying bleach or other sanitizing agents to reduce to presence of diseases. In commercial systems, this process is often assisted by automation, where rafts are sent into a machine via conveyor belt, on which they are successively washed, sanitized, and dried.
Hydroponics is a type of horticulture and a subset of hydroculture which involves growing plants, usually crops or medicinal plants, without soil, by using water-based mineral nutrient solutions in an artificial environment. Terrestrial or aquatic plants may grow freely with their roots exposed to the nutritious liquid or the roots may be mechanically supported by an inert medium such as perlite, gravel, or other substrates.
Aquaponics is a food production system that couples aquaculture with hydroponics whereby the nutrient-rich aquaculture water is fed to hydroponically grown plants.
Aeroponics is the process of cultivating plants in an air or mist environment, eliminating the need for soil or an aggregate medium. The term "aeroponic" originates from the ancient Greek: aer (air) and ponos. It falls under the category of hydroponics, as water is employed in aeroponics to deliver nutrients to the plants.
Cultivation of cannabis is the production of cannabis infructescences. Cultivation techniques for other purposes differ.
Passive hydroponics, semi-hydroponics or passive subirrigation is a method of growing plants without soil, peat moss, or bark.
Vertical farming is the practice of growing crops in vertically and horizontally stacked layers. It often incorporates controlled-environment agriculture, which aims to optimize plant growth, and soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. Some common choices of structures to house vertical farming systems include buildings, shipping containers, underground tunnels, and abandoned mine shafts.
A growroom or growth chamber is a room of any size where plants are grown under controlled conditions. The reasons for utilizing a growroom are countless. Some seek to avoid the criminal repercussions of growing illicit cultivars, while others simply have no alternative to indoor growing. Plants can be grown with the use of grow lights, sunlight, or a combination of the two. Due to the heat generated by high power lamps, grow rooms will often become excessively hot relative to the temperature range ideal for plant growth, often necessitating the use of a supplemental ventilation fan.
Controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) -- which includes indoor agriculture (IA) and vertical farming—is a technology-based approach toward food production. The aim of CEA is to provide protection from the outdoor elements and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop. Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or plant factory.
Pythium dissotocum is a plant pathogen infecting strawberry and rice.
Ebb and flow hydroponics is a form of hydroponics that is known for its simplicity, reliability of operation and low initial investment cost. Pots are filled with an inert medium which does not function like soil or contribute nutrition to the plants but which anchors the roots and functions as a temporary reserve of water and solvent mineral nutrients. The hydroponic solution alternately floods the system and is allowed to ebb away.
A grow box is a partially or completely enclosed system for raising plants indoors or in small areas. Grow boxes are used for a number of reasons, including the lack of available outdoor space or the desire to grow vegetables, herbs or flowers during cold weather months. They can also help protect plants against pests or diseases.
Nutrient film technique (NFT) is a hydroponic technique where in a very shallow stream of water containing all the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is re-circulated past the bare roots of plants in a watertight gully, also known as channels.
The Hoagland solution is a hydroponic nutrient solution that was newly developed by Hoagland and Snyder in 1933, modified by Hoagland and Arnon in 1938, and revised by Arnon in 1950. It is one of the most popular standard solution compositions for growing plants, in the scientific world at least, with more than 20,000 citations listed by Google Scholar. The Hoagland solution provides all essential elements for plant nutrition and is appropriate for supporting normal growth of a large variety of plant species.
The Rooftop Garden Project is an experimental urban gardening project in Montreal, Canada.
Organic hydroponics is a hydroponics culture system based on organic agriculture concepts that does not use synthetic inputs such as fertilizers or pesticides. In organic hydroponics, nutrient solutions are derived from plant and animal material or naturally mined substances. Most studies on the topic have focused on the use of organic fertilizer.
Dennis Robert Hoagland was an American chemist and plant and soil scientist who pioneered work in plant nutrition, soil chemistry, agricultural chemistry, biochemistry, and physiology. He was Professor of Plant Nutrition at the University of California at Berkeley from 1927 until his death in 1949.
Vermiponics is a soil-less growing technique that combines hydroponics with vermiculture by utilizing diluted wormbin leachate as the nutrient solution as opposed to the use of fish waste or the addition of manufactured chemicals to provide the nutrients.
Anthroponics is a type of hydroponics system that uses human waste like urine as the source of nutrients for the cultivated plants. In general, the human urine or mixed waste is collected and stored for a period of time, before being applied either directly or passed through a biofilter before reaching the plants. As a form of organic hydroponics, anthroponics combines elements of both hydroponics and aquaponics systems.
The Kratky method is a passive hydroponic technique for growing plants suspended above a reservoir of nutrient-rich water. Because it is a non-circulating technique, no additional inputs of water or nutrients are needed after the original application, and no electricity, pumps, or water and oxygen circulation systems are required. The Kratky method has applications both for commercial food production and as a small-scale and low-maintenance technique for home growers. It has been described as "the simplest hydroponic system."
The Integrated Aqua-Vegeculture System (iAVs),also informally known as Sandponics, is a food production method that combines aquaculture and horticulture (olericulture). It was developed in the 1980s by Dr. Mark McMurtry and colleagues at North Carolina State University including Professor Doug Sanders, Paul V. Nelson and Dr. Merle Jensen. This system is one of the earliest instances of a closed-loop aquaponic system.
References
↑ Roberts, Olu (August 2019). Food safety handbook for hydroponic lettuce production in a deep water culture (Thesis). hdl:1813/69355.
↑ Lundegardh, H. (July 1958). "Investigations on the Mechanism of Ahsorption and Accumulation of Salts III. Quantitative Relations between Salt Uptake and Respiration". Physiologia Plantarum. 11 (3): 585–598. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1958.tb08254.x.
↑ Amory, Keithley Lenworth (1996). Bolting response of head lettuce under tropical conditions to changes in hydroponic nutrient composition and to leaf or root cooling (Thesis). OCLC36388482. ProQuest304283364.
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