Effective potential

The effective potential (also known as effective potential energy) combines multiple, perhaps opposing, effects into a single potential. In its basic form, it is the sum of the 'opposing' centrifugal potential energy with the potential energy of a dynamical system. It may be used to determine the orbits of planets (both Newtonian and relativistic) and to perform semi-classical atomic calculations, and often allows problems to be reduced to fewer dimensions.

Definition

Effective potential. E > 0: hyperbolic orbit (A₁ as pericenter), E = 0: parabolic orbit (A₂ as pericenter), E < 0: elliptic orbit (A₃ as pericenter, A₃' as apocenter), E = E_min: circular orbit (A₄ as radius). Points A₁, ..., A₄ are called turning points.

The basic form of potential ${\displaystyle U_{\text{eff}}}$ is defined as: $${\displaystyle U_{\text{eff}}(\mathbf {r} )={\frac {L^{2}}{2\mu r^{2}}}+U(\mathbf {r} ),}$$ where

• L is the angular momentum
• r is the distance between the two masses
• μ is the reduced mass of the two bodies (approximately equal to the mass of the orbiting body if one mass is much larger than the other); and
• U(r) is the general form of the potential.

The effective force, then, is the negative gradient of the effective potential: $${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {F} _{\text{eff}}&=-\nabla U_{\text{eff}}(\mathbf {r} )\\&={\frac {L^{2}}{\mu r^{3}}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}-\nabla U(\mathbf {r} )\end{aligned}}}$$ where ${\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}$ denotes a unit vector in the radial direction.

Important properties

There are many useful features of the effective potential, such as $${\displaystyle U_{\text{eff}}\leq E.}$$

To find the radius of a circular orbit, simply minimize the effective potential with respect to ${\displaystyle r}$, or equivalently set the net force to zero and then solve for ${\displaystyle r_{0}}$: $${\displaystyle {\frac {dU_{\text{eff}}}{dr}}=0}$$ After solving for ${\displaystyle r_{0}}$, plug this back into ${\displaystyle U_{\text{eff}}}$ to find the maximum value of the effective potential ${\displaystyle U_{\text{eff}}^{\text{max}}}$.

A circular orbit may be either stable or unstable. If it is unstable, a small perturbation could destabilize the orbit, but a stable orbit would return to equilibrium. To determine the stability of a circular orbit, determine the concavity of the effective potential. If the concavity is positive, the orbit is stable: $${\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}U_{\text{eff}}}{dr^{2}}}>0}$$

The frequency of small oscillations, using basic Hamiltonian analysis, is $${\displaystyle \omega ={\sqrt {\frac {U_{\text{eff}}''}{m}}},}$$ where the double prime indicates the second derivative of the effective potential with respect to ${\displaystyle r}$ and it is evaluated at a minimum.

Gravitational potential

Main article: Gravitational potential

Components of the effective potential of two rotating bodies: (top) the combined gravitational potentials; (btm) the combined gravitational and rotational potentials

Visualisation of the effective potential in a plane containing the orbit (grey rubber-sheet model with purple contours of equal potential), the Lagrangian points (red) and a planet (blue) orbiting a star (yellow)

Consider a particle of mass m orbiting a much heavier object of mass M. Assume Newtonian mechanics, which is both classical and non-relativistic. The conservation of energy and angular momentum give two constants E and L, which have values $${\displaystyle E={\frac {1}{2}}m\left({\dot {r}}^{2}+r^{2}{\dot {\phi }}^{2}\right)-{\frac {GmM}{r}},}$$$${\displaystyle L=mr^{2}{\dot {\phi }}}$$ when the motion of the larger mass is negligible. In these expressions,

• ${\displaystyle {\dot {r}}}$ is the derivative of r with respect to time,
• ${\displaystyle {\dot {\phi }}}$ is the angular velocity of mass m,
• G is the gravitational constant,
• E is the total energy, and
• L is the angular momentum.

Only two variables are needed, since the motion occurs in a plane. Substituting the second expression into the first and rearranging gives $${\displaystyle m{\dot {r}}^{2}=2E-{\frac {L^{2}}{mr^{2}}}+{\frac {2GmM}{r}}=2E-{\frac {1}{r^{2}}}\left({\frac {L^{2}}{m}}-2GmMr\right),}$$$${\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}m{\dot {r}}^{2}=E-U_{\text{eff}}(r),}$$ where $${\displaystyle U_{\text{eff}}(r)={\frac {L^{2}}{2mr^{2}}}-{\frac {GmM}{r}}}$$ is the effective potential. ^{[Note 1]} The original two-variable problem has been reduced to a one-variable problem. For many applications the effective potential can be treated exactly like the potential energy of a one-dimensional system: for instance, an energy diagram using the effective potential determines turning points and locations of stable and unstable equilibria. A similar method may be used in other applications, for instance determining orbits in a general relativistic Schwarzschild metric.

Effective potentials are widely used in various condensed matter subfields, e.g. the Gauss-core potential (Likos 2002, Baeurle 2004) and the screened Coulomb potential (Likos 2001).

See also

• Geopotential

Notes

1. A similar derivation may be found in José & Saletan, Classical Dynamics: A Contemporary Approach, pgs. 31–33

References

1. Seidov, Zakir F. (2004). "The Roche Problem: Some Analytics". The Astrophysical Journal. 603: 283–284. arXiv: astro-ph/0311272 . Bibcode:2004ApJ...603..283S. doi:10.1086/381315.

Further reading

• José, JV; Saletan, EJ (1998). Classical Dynamics: A Contemporary Approach (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-63636-0..
• Likos, C.N.; Rosenfeldt, S.; Dingenouts, N.; Ballauff, M.; Lindner, P.; Werner, N.; Vögtle, F.; et al. (2002). "Gaussian effective interaction between flexible dendrimers of fourth generation: a theoretical and experimental study". J. Chem. Phys. 117 (4): 1869–1877. Bibcode:2002JChPh.117.1869L. doi:10.1063/1.1486209. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19.

• Baeurle, S.A.; Kroener J. (2004). "Modeling Effective Interactions of Micellar Aggregates of Ionic Surfactants with the Gauss-Core Potential". J. Math. Chem. 36 (4): 409–421. doi:10.1023/B:JOMC.0000044526.22457.bb.

• Likos, C.N. (2001). "Effective interactions in soft condensed matter physics". Physics Reports. 348 (4–5): 267–439. Bibcode:2001PhR...348..267L. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.473.7668 . doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(00)00141-1.