Electronic waste in India

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Electronic waste is emerging as a serious public health and environmental issue in India. [1] India is the "Third largest electronic waste producer in the world"; approximately 2 million tons of e-waste are generated annually and an undisclosed amount of e-waste is imported from other countries around the world. [2] [3]

Contents

Discarded electronic waste. Electronic waste at Agbogbloshie, Ghana.jpg
Discarded electronic waste.

Annually, computer devices account for nearly 70% of e-waste, 12% comes from the telecom sector, 8% from medical equipment and 7% from electric equipment. The government, public sector companies, and private sector companies generate nearly 75% of electronic waste, with the contribution of individual household being only 16%. [2]

E-waste is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life." Computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, copiers, and fax machines are common electronic products. Many of these products can be reused, refurbished, or recycled. There has been an upgrade to this E-waste garbage list to include gadgets like smartphones, tablets, laptops, video game consoles, cameras, e-bikes, and many more. India had 1.012 billion active mobile connections in January 2018. Every year, this number is growing exponentially. [4]

According to ASSOCHAM, an industrial body in India, the Compound Annual Growth Rate of electronic waste is 30%. With changing consumer behavior and rapid economic growth, ASSOCHAM estimates that India will generate 5.2 million tonnes of e-waste by 2020. [5] [6]

While e-waste recycling is a source of income for many people in India, it also poses numerous health and environmental risks. More than 95% of India's e-waste is illegally recycled by informal waste pickers called kabadiwalas or raddiwalas (scrap traders). [3] These workers operate independently, outside of any formal organization which makes enforcing e-waste regulations difficult-to-impossible. Recyclers often rely on rudimentary recycling techniques that can release toxic pollutants into the surrounding area. The release of toxic pollutants associated with crude e-waste recycling can have far reaching, irreversible consequences. [3] [7]

By region

Major e-waste generating cities in India E waste cities.jpg
Major e-waste generating cities in India

In India, the amount of e-waste generated differs by state. The three states that produce the most e-waste are as follows: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Other states that produce significant e-waste are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. [1]

Additionally, e-waste is disproportionately generated in urban areas—65 Indian cities generate more than 60% of India's total e-waste. Mumbai is the top e-waste producer followed by Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Kolkata. [1]

Health and safety

Health hazards

Women and children are particularly vulnerable to the health effects of toxic e-waste exposure. Mother and Child - Kozhikode - India.JPG
Women and children are particularly vulnerable to the health effects of toxic e-waste exposure.

E-waste is a repository of numerous hazardous substances that pose significant risks to both human health and the environment. Unfortunately, it is frequently disposed of without adequate safety measures in place. This is largely because a substantial portion of e-waste is processed illegally by workers operating outside of formal, regulated systems. These informal laborers often employ unregulated and perilous recycling methods, leading to potentially severe health consequences. [9] Regrettably, the recycling labor force exhibits a low literacy rate and limited awareness of the hazards associated with e-waste. Consequently, many of these workers unwittingly partake in activities that jeopardize their health. [1] In Delhi alone, an estimated 25,000 workers including children are involved in crude e-waste dismantling units—annually these units dismantle 10,000–20,000 tons of e-waste with bare hands. [10] They lack proper personal protective equipment and are exposed to toxins through the e-waste. The materials that are not recycled by waste pickers are often left in landfills or burned. Both methods can lead to toxic chemicals leaking into the air, water and soil. Workers in these facilities often do not have adequate safety gear and exposure to e-waste can lead to many health issues. Exposure can happen directly or indirectly through skin contact, inhalation of fine particles and ingestion of contaminated dust. Potential health outcomes from e-waste exposure include changes in thyroid functions, poor neonatal outcomes, including spontaneous abortions, stillbirths and premature births. [11] Side effects also included changes in behaviors and decreased lung function. There is also evidence of significant DNA damage.

Vulnerable populations

Vulnerable populations such as pregnant women, children and the elderly are particularly susceptible to the health risks of e-waste. It is estimated that throughout India, 400,000-500,000 child workers between the ages of 10-15 are involved in e-waste recycling activities. [1] Hazardous chemical absorption can have a negative effect on a child's growth and can cause permanent damages. Children are particularly sensitive to lead poisoning, It is found that the e-waste recycling activities had contributed to the elevated blood lead levels in children. [12] Pregnant women have risks of spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, premature births, and reduced birth weights associated with exposure to the electronic waste

Environmental impacts

The processes used to recycle and dispose of e-waste in India have led to a number of detrimental environmental impacts. As a result, improper recycling and disposal techniques, air, water and soil throughout much of India is now contaminated with toxic e-waste byproducts.

Air

Air pollution is a widespread problem in India—nine out of the ten most polluted cities on earth are in India. [13] An important contributor to India's air pollution problem is widespread, improper recycling and disposal of e-waste.

For example, dismantling and shredding of e-waste releases dust and particulates into the surrounding air. Low value e-waste products like plastics are often burned—this releases fine particles into the air that can travel hundreds-to-thousands of miles. [14] Desoldering is a technique used to extract higher-value materials like gold and silver which can release chemicals and damaging fumes when done improperly. [14]

In addition to contributing to air pollution, these toxic e-waste particulates can contaminate water and soil. When it rains, particulates in the air are deposited back into the water and soil. Toxic e-waste air particulates easily spread throughout the environment by contaminating water and soil which can have damaging effects on the ecosystem.

Water

A child walks in a trash-laden river in the Indian Himalayas. Slum and dirty river.jpg
A child walks in a trash-laden river in the Indian Himalayas.

India's sacred Yamuna river and Ganges river are considered to be among the most polluted rivers in the world. It is estimated that nearly 80% of India's surface water is polluted. [15]  Sewage, pesticide runoff and industrial waste, including e-waste, all contribute to India's water pollution problem. [15]

E-waste contaminates water in two major ways:

  1. Landfills: Dumping e-waste into landfills that are not designed to contain e-waste can lead to contamination of surface and groundwater because the toxic chemicals can leach from landfills into the water supply.
  2. Improper recycling: Improper recycling produces toxic byproducts that may be disposed of using existing drainage such as city sewers and street drains. Once these products have been introduced into the local water supply, they can cause further pollution by entering surface water such as streams, ponds, and rivers.  

Researchers at Jamia Millia Islamia University collected samples of soil and groundwater from five locations with high e-waste activity and found dangerous levels of contamination near unregulated e-waste sites. [16] According to this study the average concentration of all heavy metals (except zinc) in water near e-waste sites in New Delhi was significantly higher than reference samples.

In addition to being measurable, the effects of industrial waste pollution in India are easily observable. Approximately 500 liters of industrial waste, which includes e-waste, are dumped into the Ganges and Yamuna river daily which has led to the formation of toxic foam [17] which covers large regions of the rivers. [18]

Soil

According to research by Jamia Millia Islamia University, the average concentration of heavy metals in topsoil near e-waste sites in India is significantly higher than in standard agriculture soil samples. Another study tested soil samples from 28 e-waste recycling sites in India and found that the soil contained high levels of toxic Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). [19]

Further soil sample analysis conducted by the SRM Institute of Science and Technology found the average concentration PCBs in Indian soil to be two times higher than the average amount globally.  In India, PCB compounds are most prevalent in urban areas with the highest rate of soil-contamination found in Chennai (a city that imports e-waste), followed by Bengaluru, Delhi and Mumbai. [20]

Disposal techniques

Workers dismanteling e-waste in Delhi. Ewaste-delhi.jpg
Workers dismanteling e-waste in Delhi.

The current e-waste disposal techniques in India have operated mostly in an informal manner due to the lack of enforcement laws and regulations. This has created a new area of economic gain for the country, especially among the urban and rural poor. Though it helps many make a living, those that are disposing of e-waste are usually not aware of the risks and health hazards that result from certain disposal techniques. There are two sectors that handle e-waste disposal and they can be divided into Informal or Formal Sectors. [21]

Formal sector

The formal sector includes two facilities authorized to deconstruct electronics for the entire country of India and are at capacity with five tons being disposed each day. These facilities primarily receive electronic waste from the producers of "service centers or take-back schemes" or companies that follow the environmental policies on disposing electronic waste. These facilities, though reaching capacity daily, are not the mainstream method of disposal. The formal sector only follows procedure of dismantling and segregating parts. They do not physically dispose of the electronic waste. The informal sector has made it difficult to compete. [21]

Informal sector

The informal sector handles electronic waste by recycling or final disposal. Much of electronics that reach India are out of date to more developed countries. Then, within India, these electronics are passed around until no longer of use. There is a whole economic market for electronic waste because the parts can be dismantled and the scrap metals can be recycled. There are recycling techniques that are not following any type of environmental or health standards. Some of the methods used are acid baths, burning cables, and disposing in nature which can be detrimental to the health of those participating in these disposal techniques. [21]

Regulations

The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) is primarily responsible for regulations regarding electronic waste. Additionally, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) produce implementation procedures to ensure proper management of rules set forth by the MoEFCC.

E-Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2011

An addition to the Environmental Protection Act of 1986, the E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules of 2011 came into effect in May 2012. The rules stated that all manufacturers and importers of electronic goods were required to come up with a plan to manage their electronic waste. Producers or importers had to establish e-waste collection centers or employ take back systems. These rules also mandated that sellers of electronic goods must provide consumers with information on how to properly dispose of the electronics in order to prevent people from dumping their electronics with domestic waste. Further, companies that produce electronics which have the potential to become e-waste must make the consumer aware of the hazardous materials in their product. These rules established and placed specific responsibilities for each party involved in the production, disposal, and management of electronic waste. Specific responsibilities were given to the producer, collection centers, consumer or bulk consumer, dismantlers, and recyclers. These rules also mandated that commercial consumers and government departments must keep records of their electronic waste and make them available to state and federal Pollution Control Boards. [22]

E-Waste Management Rules, 2016

In October 2016, the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 replaced the E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011. This set of rules clarifies duties of responsible parties, enacts more stringent regulations on e-waste production, as well as clarifies the general definition of e-waste. In these rules, e-waste is defined as "electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part discarded as waste by the consumer or bulk consumer as well as rejects from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes. ‘Electrical and electronic equipment’ in turn has been defined to mean equipment which are dependent on electric current or electro-magnetic field in order to become functional." [23] A major concept presented in theses rules is the idea of extended producer responsibility (EPR). Producers of electronic products must implement EPR in order to ensure that their electronic waste is delivered to authorized recyclers or dismantlers. These rules establish and place specific responsibilities for each party involved in the production, disposal, and management of electronic waste. Specific responsibilities were given to the manufacturer, producer, collection centers, dealers, refurbisher, consumer or bulk consumer, recycler, and the state government. These rules also stated target goals for certain industries to drastically reduce their collection of electronic waste. [24]

Amendment to the E-Waste Management Rules, 2018

This amendment relaxes certain aspects of the strict E- Waste (Management Rules of 2016). Specifically, the amendment focusses on the e-waste collection targets by 10% during 2017–2018, 20% during 2018–2019, 30% during 2019–2020, and so on. This amendment also gives the Central Pollution Control Board power to randomly select electronic equipment on the market to test for compliance of rules. The financial cost associated with this testing shall be the responsibility of the government, whereas previously, this responsibility was of the producer. [25]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hazardous waste</span> Ignitable, reactive, corrosive and/or toxic unwanted or unusable materials

Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. Hazardous waste is a type of dangerous goods. They usually have one or more of the following hazardous traits: ignitability, reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity. Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as hazardous wastes which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products. Hazardous wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste management</span> Activities and actions required to manage waste from its source to its final disposal

Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and economic mechanisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical waste</span> Waste made from harmful chemicals

Chemical waste is any excess, unused, or unwanted chemical, especially those that cause damage to human health or the environment. Chemical waste may be classified as hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste, universal waste, or household hazardous waste. Hazardous waste is material that displays one or more of the following four characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity. This information, along with chemical disposal requirements, is typically available on a chemical's Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Radioactive waste requires special ways of handling and disposal due to its radioactive properties. Biohazardous waste, which may contain hazardous materials, is also handled differently.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Industrial waste</span> Waste produced by industrial activity or manufacturing processes

Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and mining operations. Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber, even vegetable matter from restaurants. Industrial waste may be solid, semi-solid or liquid in form. It may be hazardous waste or non-hazardous waste. Industrial waste may pollute the nearby soil or adjacent water bodies, and can contaminate groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers or coastal waters. Industrial waste is often mixed into municipal waste, making accurate assessments difficult. An estimate for the US goes as high as 7.6 billion tons of industrial waste produced annually, as of 2017. Most countries have enacted legislation to deal with the problem of industrial waste, but strictness and compliance regimes vary. Enforcement is always an issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxic waste</span> Any unwanted material which can cause harm

Toxic waste is any unwanted material in all forms that can cause harm. Mostly generated by industry, consumer products like televisions, computers, and phones contain toxic chemicals that can pollute the air and contaminate soil and water. Disposing of such waste is a major public health issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural wastewater treatment</span> Farm management for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and surface runoff

Agricultural wastewater treatment is a farm management agenda for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and from surface runoff that may be contaminated by chemicals in fertilizer, pesticides, animal slurry, crop residues or irrigation water. Agricultural wastewater treatment is required for continuous confined animal operations like milk and egg production. It may be performed in plants using mechanized treatment units similar to those used for industrial wastewater. Where land is available for ponds, settling basins and facultative lagoons may have lower operational costs for seasonal use conditions from breeding or harvest cycles. Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal dumping</span> Act of dumping waste illegally

Illegal dumping, also called fly dumping or fly tipping (UK), is the dumping of waste illegally instead of using an authorized method such as curbside collection or using an authorized rubbish dump. It is the illegal deposit of any waste onto land, including waste dumped or tipped on a site with no license to accept waste. The United States Environmental Protection Agency developed a “profile” of the typical illegal dumper. Characteristics of offenders include local residents, construction and landscaping contractors, waste removers, scrap yard operators, and automobile and tire repair shops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronic waste recycling</span> Form of recycling

Electronic waste recycling, electronics recycling, or e-waste recycling is the disassembly and separation of components and raw materials of waste electronics; when referring to specific types of e-waste, the terms like computer recycling or mobile phone recycling may be used. Like other waste streams, reuse, donation, and repair are common sustainable ways to dispose of IT waste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronic waste</span> Discarded electronic devices

Electronic waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. It is also commonly known as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life (EOL) electronics. Used electronics which are destined for refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through material recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental pollution. The growing consumption of electronic goods due to the Digital Revolution and innovations in science and technology, such as bitcoin, has led to a global e-waste problem and hazard. The rapid exponential increase of e-waste is due to frequent new model releases and unnecessary purchases of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), short innovation cycles and low recycling rates, and a drop in the average life span of computers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil contamination</span> Pollution of land by human-made chemicals or other alteration

Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical substance. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapour from the contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting clean ups are time-consuming and expensive tasks, and require expertise in geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modelling, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental dumping</span>

Environmental harmful product dumping is the practice of transfrontier shipment of waste from one country to another. The goal is to take the waste to a country that has less strict environmental laws, or environmental laws that are not strictly enforced. The economic benefit of this practice is cheap disposal or recycling of waste without the economic regulations of the original country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biomedical waste</span> Waste containing infectious material

Biomedical waste or hospital waste is any kind of waste containing infectious materials generated during the treatment of humans or animals as well as during research involving biologics. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin, as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are mainly restricted from environmental release. As detailed below, discarded sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not, due to the possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury when not properly contained and disposed. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste</span> Unwanted or unusable materials

Waste are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use. A by-product, by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor economic value. A waste product may become a by-product, joint product or resource through an invention that raises a waste product's value above zero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronic waste in the United States</span>

Electronic waste or e-waste in the United States refers to electronic products that have reached the end of their operable lives, and the United States is beginning to address its waste problems with regulations at a state and federal level. Used electronics are the quickest-growing source of waste and can have serious health impacts. The United States is the world leader in producing the most e-waste, followed closely by China; both countries domestically recycle and export e-waste. Only recently has the United States begun to make an effort to start regulating where e-waste goes and how it is disposed of. There is also an economic factor that has an effect on where and how e-waste is disposed of. Electronics are the primary users of precious and special metals, retrieving those metals from electronics can be viewed as important as raw metals may become more scarce

Electronic waste or e-waste in China refers to electronic products that are no longer usable and are therefore dumped or recycled. China is the world's largest importer and producer of electronic waste with over 70% of all global e-waste ending up in the world's largest dumpsites. An estimated 60–80% of this e-waste is handled through illegal informal recycling processes, without the necessary safety precautions legally required by Chinese government regulations. Processing e-waste in this way directly causes serious environmental damage and permanent health risks in areas surrounding the disposal sites. While the Chinese government and the international community have taken action to regulate e-waste management, ineffective enforcement, legislative loopholes, and the pervasiveness of informal recycling have been obstacles to mitigating the consequences of e-waste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agbogbloshie</span> Suburb near Accra, Ghana, known for its e-waste dump issues

Agbogbloshie is a nickname of a commercial district on the Korle Lagoon of the Odaw River, near the center of Accra, Ghana's capital city in the Greater Accra region. Near the slum called "Old Fadama", the Agbogbloshie site became known as a destination for externally generated automobile and electronic scrap collected from mostly the western world. It was a center of a legal and illegal exportation network for the environmental dumping of electronic waste (e-waste) from industrialized nations. The Basel Action Network, a small NGO based in Seattle, has referred to Agbogbloshie as a "digital dumping ground", where they allege millions of tons of e-waste are processed each year.

The global waste trade is the international trade of waste between countries for further treatment, disposal, or recycling. Toxic or hazardous wastes are often imported by developing countries from developed countries.

China's waste import ban, instated at the end of 2017, prevented foreign inflows of waste products. Starting in early 2018, the government of China, under Operation National Sword, banned the import of several types of waste, including plastics with a contamination level of above 0.05 percent. The ban has greatly affected recycling industries worldwide, as China had been the world's largest importer of waste plastics and processed hard-to-recycle plastics for other countries, especially in the West.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste management in South Korea</span>

Waste management in South Korea involves waste generation reduction and ensuring maximum recycling of the waste. This includes the appropriate treatment, transport, and disposal of the collected waste. South Korea's Waste Management Law was established in 1986, replacing the Environmental Protection Law (1963) and the Filth and Cleaning Law (1973). This new law aimed to reduce general waste under the waste hierarchy in South Korea. This Waste Management Law imposed a volume-based waste fee system, effective for waste produced by both household and industrial activities.

In Egypt, waste and lack of proper management of it pose serious health and environmental problems for the country and its population. There has been some governmental attempts to better the system of waste management since the 1960s but those have not proven sufficient until now. In the last 10 years focus on this issue and solutions to it has increased both from the government and civil society. Some attempts at recycling are present, and growing in the country. But these are largely informal or private actors, and government initiatives are necessary to properly manage these systems and provide them with appropriate resources.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Joon, Veenu; Shahrawat, Renu; Kapahi, Meena (September 2017). "The Emerging Environmental and Public Health Problem of Electronic Waste in India". Journal of Health and Pollution. 7 (15): 1–7. doi:10.5696/2156-9614-7.15.1. ISSN   2156-9614. PMC   6236536 . PMID   30524825.
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  3. 1 2 3 Park, Miles. "Electronic waste is recycled in appalling conditions in India". The Conversation. Retrieved 2019-03-27.
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  6. ↑ "India to generate over 5 million tonnes of e-waste next year: ASSOCHAM-EY study". The Asian Age. 2019-03-03. Retrieved 2019-03-26.
  7. ↑ Pandit, Virendra (3 June 2016). "India likely to generate 5.2 million tonnes of e-waste by 2020: Study - Business Line". The Hindu Business Line. Archived from the original on 12 July 2018.
  8. ↑ Joon, Veenu; Shahrawat, Renu; Kapahi, Meena (September 2017). "The Emerging Environmental and Public Health Problem of Electronic Waste in India". Journal of Health and Pollution. 7 (15): 1–7. doi:10.5696/2156-9614-7.15.1. ISSN   2156-9614. PMC   6236536 . PMID   30524825.
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  10. ↑ Monika, Jugal (2010). "E-waste management: As a challenge to public health in India". Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 35 (3): 382–5. doi: 10.4103/0970-0218.69251 . PMC   2963874 . PMID   21031101.
  11. ↑ Grant, Kristen (2013). "Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: a systematic review". The Lancet. Global Health. 1 (6): e350-61. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70101-3 . PMID   25104600.
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  13. ↑ Abi-Habib, Maria; Kumar, Hari (2019-01-11). "India Finally Has Plan to Fight Air Pollution. Environmentalists Are Wary". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2019-03-28.
  14. 1 2 "WEEE: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment – Impact of WEEE" . Retrieved 2019-03-28.
  15. 1 2 "80% of India's surface water may be polluted, report by international body says - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2019-03-28.
  16. ↑ "E-waste contaminating Delhi's groundwater and soil. (2019)". Downtoearth.org. 23 March 2019.
  17. ↑ "Toxic foam pollutes India's sacred Yamuna River". ABC News . Archived from the original on 2023-07-25.
  18. ↑ "Toxic foam pollutes India's sacred Yamuna River". ABC7 Chicago. 2018-09-27. Retrieved 2019-03-28.
  19. ↑ "E-waste is releasing toxic chemicals into soil in India's metros, says study". Hindustan Times. 2018-02-27. Retrieved 2019-03-28.
  20. ↑ "Chennai's soil, Delhi's air most contaminated due to high PCB concentration: study". downtoearth.org.in. Retrieved 2019-03-28.
  21. 1 2 3 Borthakur, A., & Sinha, K. Borthakur, A., & Sinha, K. "Electronic Waste Management in India: A Stakeholder's Perspective". Electronic Green Journal. 1 (36).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ "Home - Eco Raksha". E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
  23. ↑ "E-waste Management Rules, 2016".
  24. ↑ "E-waste Management Rules, 2016".
  25. ↑ "E- Waste Management Rules amended [Key Highlights]". E-Waste Management Rules Amended (Key Highlights). 27 March 2018.
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