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The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe is one of the five regional commissions under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. It was established in order to promote economic cooperation and integration among its member states.
Liquid hydrogen (H2(l)) is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecular H2 form.
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen-fueled space rockets, as well as ships and aircraft. Power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy, either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or, less commonly, by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine.
Cryogenic fuels are fuels that require storage at extremely low temperatures in order to maintain them in a liquid state. These fuels are used in machinery that operates in space where ordinary fuel cannot be used, due to the very low temperatures often encountered in space, and the absence of an environment that supports combustion. Cryogenic fuels most often constitute liquefied gases such as liquid hydrogen.
The hydrogen economy uses hydrogen to decarbonize economic sectors which are hard to electrify, essentially, the "hard-to-abate" sectors such as cement, steel, long-haul transport, etc. In order to phase out fossil fuels and limit climate change, hydrogen can be created from water using renewable sources such as wind and solar, and its combustion only releases water vapor into the atmosphere.
Hydrogen fuel refers to hydrogen which is burned as fuel with oxygen. It can be a zero-carbon fuel, provided that it is created in a process that does not involve carbon. There are many types of hydrogen like white, green, blue, grey, black, or brown hydrogen owing to the various methods of processes by which they come. It can be used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines. Regarding hydrogen vehicles, hydrogen has begun to be used in commercial fuel cell vehicles such as passenger cars, and has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is also used as a fuel for spacecraft propulsion and is being proposed for hydrogen-powered aircraft. The fuel technology has seen awakened interest from automakers who claim it is comparatively cheap and safer to incorporate into the modern vehicle architecture over recent challenges faced by electric vehicle makers.
A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is an electric vehicle that uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small battery or supercapacitor, to power its onboard electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles generate electricity generally using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles that emit only water and heat. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas. Transporting and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants. Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in indoor applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in space applications. Fuel cells are being developed and tested in trucks, buses, boats, ships, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.
The methanol economy is a suggested future economy in which methanol and dimethyl ether replace fossil fuels as a means of energy storage, ground transportation fuel, and raw material for synthetic hydrocarbons and their products. It offers an alternative to the proposed hydrogen economy or ethanol economy, though these concepts are not exclusive.
A hydrogen station is a storage or filling station for hydrogen fuel. The hydrogen is dispensed by weight. There are two filling pressures in common use: H70 or 700 bar, and the older standard H35 or 350 bar. As of 2021, around 550 filling stations were available worldwide.
The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) was a driving cycle, last updated in 1997, designed to assess the emission levels of car engines and fuel economy in passenger cars. It is also referred to as MVEG cycle.
The World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations is a working party (WP.29) of the Inland Transport Committee (ITC) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). Its responsibility is to manage the multilateral Agreements signed in 1958, 1997 and 1998 concerning the technical prescriptions for the construction, approval of wheeled vehicles as well as their Periodic Technical Inspection and, to operate within the framework of these three Agreements to develop and amend UN Regulations, UN Global Technical Regulations and UN Rules, kind of vehicle regulation.
A bivalent engine is an engine that can use two different types of fuel. Examples are petroleum/CNG and petroleum/LPG engines, which are widely available in the European passenger vehicle aftermarket.
Hydrogen technologies are technologies that relate to the production and use of hydrogen as a part hydrogen economy. Hydrogen technologies are applicable for many uses.
The BMW Hydrogen 7 is a limited production hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle built from 2005-2007 by German automobile manufacturer BMW. The car is based on BMW’s traditional petrol-powered BMW 7 Series (E65) line of vehicles, and more specifically the 760Li. It uses the same 6-litre V-12 motor as does the 760i and 760Li; however, it has been modified to also allow for the combustion of hydrogen as well as petrol, making it a bivalent engine. Unlike many other current hydrogen powered vehicles like those being produced by Hyundai, Honda, General Motors, and Daimler AG /p>
Hydrogen safety covers the safe production, handling and use of hydrogen, particularly hydrogen gas fuel and liquid hydrogen.
An orbital propellant depot is a cache of propellant that is placed in orbit around Earth or another body to allow spacecraft or the transfer stage of the spacecraft to be fueled in space. It is one of the types of space resource depots that have been proposed for enabling infrastructure-based space exploration. Many different depot concepts exist depending on the type of fuel to be supplied, location, or type of depot which may also include a propellant tanker that delivers a single load to a spacecraft at a specified orbital location and then departs. In-space fuel depots are not necessarily located near or at a space station.
A liquid nitrogen vehicle is powered by liquid nitrogen, which is stored in a tank. Traditional nitrogen engine designs work by heating the liquid nitrogen in a heat exchanger, extracting heat from the ambient air and using the resulting pressurized gas to operate a piston or rotary motor. Vehicles propelled by liquid nitrogen have been demonstrated, but are not used commercially. One such vehicle, Liquid Air, was demonstrated in 1902.
The principle of a fuel cell was discovered by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838, and the first fuel cell was constructed by Sir William Robert Grove in 1839. The fuel cells made at this time were most similar to today's phosphoric acid fuel cells. Most hydrogen fuel cells today are of the proton exchange membrane (PEM) type. A PEM converts the chemical energy released during the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy. The Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990 and Energy Policy Act of 1992 were the first national legislative articles that called for large-scale hydrogen demonstration, development, and research programs. A five-year program was conducted that investigated the production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources and the feasibility of existing natural gas pipelines to carry hydrogen. It also called for the research into hydrogen storage systems for electric vehicles and the development of fuel cells suitable to power an electric motor vehicle.
The Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) is a global standard for determining the levels of pollutants, CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of traditional and hybrid cars, as well as the range of fully electric vehicles.
Hydrogen cryomagnetics is a term used to denote the use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen to cool the windings of an electromagnet. A key benefit of hydrogen cryomagnetics is that low temperature liquid hydrogen can be deployed simultaneously both as a cryogen to cool electromagnet windings and as an energy carrier. That is, powerful synergistic benefits are likely to arise when hydrogen is used as a fuel and as a coolant. Even without the fuel/coolant synergies, hydrogen cryomagnetics is an attractive option for the cooling of superconducting electromagnets as it eliminates dependence upon increasingly scarce and expensive liquid helium. For hydrogen cryomagnetic applications specialist hydrogen-cooled electromagnets are wound using either copper or superconductors. Liquid-hydrogen-cooled copper-wound magnets work well as pulsed field magnets. Superconductors have the property that they can operate continuously and very efficiently as electrical resistive losses are almost entirely avoided. Most commonly the term "hydrogen cryomagnetics" is used to denote the use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen directly, or indirectly, to enable high temperature superconductivity in electromagnet windings.
References
- 1 2 3 4 Can Cars Come Clean?: Strategies for Low-Emission Vehicles. OECD. 2004. p. 113. ISBN 978-92-64-10497-6.
- 1 2 3 Avadikyan, Armand; Cohendet, Patrick (2003). The Economic dynamics of fuel cell technologies. Springer. p. 220. ISBN 978-3-540-00748-7.
- 1 2 3 "Hydrogen-fuelled Vehicles. Informal document No.11". UNECE. 2001-05-30. Archived from the original (DOC) on 2007-02-07.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ Rajalakshmi, N.; Dhathathreyan, K. S. (2008). Present Trends in Fuel Cell Technology Development. Nova Publishers. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-60456-211-8.
- 1 2 León, Aline (2008). Hydrogen technology: mobile and portable applications. Springer. p. 317. ISBN 978-3-540-79027-3.
- ↑ Ekins, Paul (2009). Hydrogen Energy: Economic and Social Challenges. Earthscan. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-84407-680-2.
- ↑ "GM, BMW To Jointly Develop Liquid Hydrogen Refueling Technology" (PDF) (Press release). General Motors. 2003-04-09. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ↑ "Partners of the European Integrated Hydrogen Project – Phase II". www.eihp.org.