Hydrogen vehicle

Last updated
Hydrogen fuelled rockets include the Delta IV Heavy. Delta IV launch 2013-08-28.jpg
Hydrogen fuelled rockets include the Delta IV Heavy.

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen to move. Hydrogen vehicles include some road vehicles, rail vehicles, space rockets, forklifts, ships and aircraft. Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy, either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or, less commonly, by hydrogen internal combustion. [1]

Contents

Hydrogen burns cleaner than fuels such as gasoline or methane but is more difficult to store and transport because of the small size of the molecule. As of the 2020s hydrogen light duty vehicles, including passenger cars, have been sold in small numbers due to competition with battery electric vehicles. [2] [3] As of 2021, there were two models of hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai (2014–), the first commercially produced dedicated fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), [4] [5] [6] and the Hyundai Nexo (2018–). The Honda CR-V e:FCEV became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024. [7]

As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide. [8] It can be produced by electrolysis of water, or by thermochemical or pyrolytic means using renewable feedstocks, but the processes are currently expensive. [9] Various technologies are being developed that aim to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas. [10]

Vehicles running on hydrogen technology benefit from a long range on a single refuelling, but are subject to several drawbacks including high carbon emissions when hydrogen is produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, high energy inputs in production and transportation, low energy content per unit volume at ambient conditions, production and compression of hydrogen, the investment required to build refuelling infrastructure around the world to dispense hydrogen. [11] [12] [13] In addition, leaked hydrogen is an invisible, highly flammable gas and has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂. [14]

Vehicles

The Honda FCX, along with the Toyota FCHV, is the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. FCX-Honda.JPG
The Honda FCX, along with the Toyota FCHV, is the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.

Rationale and context

The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation. [17] This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited.

Rockets

Centaur (rocket stage) was the first to use liquid hydrogen Centaur Rocket Engine - GPN-2000-000387.jpg
Centaur (rocket stage) was the first to use liquid hydrogen

Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to kerosene/LOX or UDMH/NTO engines. According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the energy density of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel. [18] LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant. [19]

A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed compared to methane, although methane is more polluting. [20] Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.[ citation needed ] For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag. [21]

LH2/LOX were also used in the Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems. [22] The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.

Automobiles

The Toyota Mirai Toyota Mirai (JPD20) IMG 5303.jpg
The Toyota Mirai

As of 2021, there were two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai Nexo. [23] The Honda Clarity was produced from 2016 to 2021. [24] Hydrogen combustion cars are not commercially available.[ citation needed ] In the light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide, [25] compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles. [26] In 2023, 3,143 hydrogen cars were sold in the US compared with 380,000 BEVs. [27] With the rapid rise of electric vehicles and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations. [2] [28] John Max of Hydrogen Fuel News believes that hydrogen may, however, be used directly, or as a feedstock for efuel, for vintage and muscle cars. [29] [30] [31]

The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by General Motors in 1966. [32] The Toyota FCHV and Honda FCX, which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, [16] [15] [33] and the Honda FCX Clarity, which began leasing in 2008, was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model. [34] Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers. [35] [36]

The 2013 Hyundai Tucson FCEV, a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease-only vehicle, [37] [38] and Hyundai Motors claimed it was the world's first mass-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. [39] [40] [41] However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015. [39] Hyundai Nexo, which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the "safest SUV" by the Euro NCAP in 2018, [42] but In October 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device". [43]

Toyota launched the world's first dedicated mass-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the Mirai, in Japan at the end of 2014 [4] [5] [6] and began sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark [44] later in 2015. [45] The car has a range of 312 mi (502 km) and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000). [46] Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold. [47] At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais. [48] [8] Many automobile companies introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles). [49] [50]

In 2013 BMW leased hydrogen technology from Toyota, and a group formed by Ford Motor Company, Daimler AG, and Nissan announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development. [51] In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge to stimulate the market for hydrogen-powered vehicles. [52] By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development, [53] and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles. [54] By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars. [55] The Honda CR-V e:FCEV became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024. [7]

A significant number of the public hydrogen fuel stations in the California are not able to dispense hydrogen. [56] In 2024, Mirai owners filed a class action lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty. [57]

Heavy trucks

The International Energy Agency's 2022 net-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%). [58]

United Parcel Service began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017. [59] In 2020, Hyundai began commercial production of its Xcient fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to Switzerland. [60] [61] [62]

In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell class 8 trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' Townsville mine to the Port of Townsville, Queensland, to be shipped around the world. [63]

Aeroplanes

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator AB1.JPG
The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell
Hydrogen projections The Hydrogen Ladder, Version 5.0.jpg
Hydrogen projections

Some publications project hydrogen may be used in shipping [64] and jetplanes, [65] while others predict that biofuels and batteries will have more commercial success. [66] Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested. [67] For large passenger aeroplanes, The Times reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard." [68]

In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered Phantom Eye UAV, powered by two Ford internal-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen. [69]

Ships

As of 2019 hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long-distance ships but are being considered as a range-extender for smaller, short-distance, low-speed electric vessels, such as ferries. [70] Hydrogen in ammonia is being considered as a long-distance fuel. [71]

Buses

A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in Bolechowo, Poland Solaris Urbino 12 hydrogen 2.jpg
A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in Bolechowo, Poland

Fuel-cell buses were trialed in Ursus Lublin in 2017. [72] Solaris Bus & Coach introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019. Several dozen were ordered. [73] The first city in the U.S. to have a fleet of hydrogen powered buses was Champaign, Illinois, when in 2021 the Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District ordered two New Flyer XHE60 articulated hydrogen fuel cell buses, with 10 more New Flyer XHE40 buses added in 2024. [74] In 2022, the city of Montpellier, France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that "the cost of operation for hydrogen [buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity". [75]

Fork trucks

A hydrogen internal combustion engine (or "HICE") forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp) diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection. [76] [77]

In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US. [78] As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021. [79]

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts. [80] [81] Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop-in replacements. [82] [83]

Trams and trains

External videos
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg China rolls out its first hydrogen fuel cell hybrid locomotive, Xinhua, 28 January 2021

In the International Energy Agency’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify. [84]

In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao. [85] Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities. [86]

In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel-cell powered Coradia iLint trains were placed into service; excess power is stored in lithium-ion batteries. [87]

Bicycles and stand-up scooters

PHB hydrogen bicycle Hydrogen bicycle.jpg
PHB hydrogen bicycle

In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of Shanghai, China, demonstrated a PHB hydrogen bicycle. [88] [89] In 2014, Australian scientists from the University of New South Wales presented their Hy-Cycle model. [90] The same year, Canyon Bicycles started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle. [91]

In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder. [92] In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, "Alpha Bike", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km, and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the 45th G7 summit in Biarritz, France. [93]

In 2020, Alles over Waterstof [94] developed a 2-wheel hydrogen powered stand-up scooter. The stand-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo-bike, using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen. [95]

Lloyd Alter of TreeHugger responded to the announcement, asking "why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e-bike [or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. [If] you were a captive fleet operator, why [not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?" [96]

Military vehicles

General Motors' military division, GM Defense, focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. [97] Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017, the U.S. Army has been testing the commercial Chevrolet Colorado ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments. [98]

Motorcycles and scooters

ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters. [99] Finally, hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter [100] and the FHybrid. [101] The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU. [102] The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy. [103]

Auto rickshaws

Hydrogen auto rickshaw concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto. [104] [105]

Quads and tractors

Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due [106] is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers. A concept for a hydrogen-powered tractor has been proposed. [107] [108]

Auto racing

A record of 207.297 miles per hour (333.612 km/h) was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power. [109] The land-speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle of 286.476 miles per hour (461.038 km/h) was set by Ohio State University's Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying-mile" speed of 280.007 miles per hour (450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008.

In 2007, the Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500-mile race. [110]

Internal combustion vehicle

Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in emissions of mostly carbon dioxide and water, plus trace amounts of carbon monoxide, NOx, particulates and unburned hydrocarbons, [111] while the main exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor.

In 1807 François Isaac de Rivaz designed the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine. [112] In 1965, Roger E. Billings, then a high school student, converted a Model A to run on hydrogen. [113] In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen. [114]

Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen, which are used in the Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE. The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production. [115]

Fuel cell

Fuel cell cost

Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances, such as platinum, as a catalyst. [116] In 2014, former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold. [47] In 2020, researchers at the University of Copenhagen's Department of Chemistry are developing a new type of catalyst that they hope will decrease the cost of fuel cells. [117] This new catalyst uses far less platinum because the platinum nano-particles are not coated over carbon which, in conventional hydrogen fuel cells, keeps the nano-particles in place but also causes the catalyst to become unstable and denatures it slowly, requiring even more platinum. The new technology uses durable nanowires instead of the nano-particles. "The next step for the researchers is to scale up their results so that the technology can be implemented in hydrogen vehicles." [118]

Freezing conditions

The problems in early fuel-cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "cannot be seen as show-stoppers anymore". [119] Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles continue to operate in temperatures below zero without significantly reducing range. [120] Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold-start indicate ice formation in the cathode, [121] three stages in cold start [122] and Nafion ionic conductivity. [123] A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability. [124]

Service life

The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles. [125] [ clarification needed ] Polymer-electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions. [126]

Hydrogen

Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like fossil fuels or helium. [127] It is produced from feedstocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water. [128] A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors. [129] However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane. It can be produced by thermochemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feedstocks, but that is an expensive process. [9]

Renewable electricity can however be used to power the conversion of water into hydrogen: Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources. [130] The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include its storage on board the vehicle. As of September 2023, hydrogen cost $36 per kilogram at public fueling stations in California, 14 times as much per mile for a Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3. [131]

Production

The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas. [132] Hydrogen can be produced from water by electrolysis at working efficiencies of 65–70%. [133] Hydrogen can be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum. [134] Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck. [135]

Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. [136] Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. [137] In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, [138] and Denmark is using wind. [139]

Storage

Compressed hydrogen storage mark Blue diamond compressed hydrogen.jpg
Compressed hydrogen storage mark

Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology. [140]

Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, compared with gasoline and other vehicle fuels. [141] It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super-cooled liquid or as highly compressed gas, which require additional energy to accomplish. [142] In 2018, researchers at CSIRO in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology. Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen. [143]

Infrastructure

The refueling of a Hydrogen-powered vehicle. The vehicle is a Hyundai Nexo. Condensation around the handle due to the hydrogen gas expanding, caused the handle to freeze. Hydrogen refueling.jpg
The refueling of a Hydrogen-powered vehicle. The vehicle is a Hyundai Nexo. Condensation around the handle due to the hydrogen gas expanding, caused the handle to freeze.

To enable the delivery of hydrogen fuel to transport end-users, a broad range of investments are needed, including, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the "construction and operation of new port infrastructure, buffer storage, pipelines, ships, refueling stations and plants to convert the hydrogen into a more readily transportable commodity (and potentially back to hydrogen)". [144] In particular, the IEA notes that refueling stations will be needed in locations that are suitable for long‐distance trucking such as industrial hubs and identifies the need for investment in airport infrastructure for the storage and delivery of hydrogen. The IEA deems the infrastructure requirements for hydrogen in shipping more challenging, drawing attention to the "need for major investments and co‐ordinated efforts among fuel suppliers, ports, shipbuilders and shippers". [145]

As of 2024, there were 53 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 52 of which were located in California (compared with 65,000 electric charging stations). [146] [147] By 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan. [148] In 2024, Mirai owners filed a class action lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty. [57]

Codes and standards

Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and the storage of hydrogen, have been an institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments. [149]

Official support

U.S. initiatives

Fuel cell buses are supported. [150]

The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) has created incentives for hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks and buses. [151]

Criticism of hydrogen cars

Critics argue that implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen in cars is unlikely during at least the next several decades [152] [153] and that the hydrogen car is a dangerous distraction from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles. [154] [155]

Former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm has said: "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases." [156] He argued that the cost to build out a nationwide network of hydrogen refueling stations would be prohibitive. [157] [158] Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory , stated: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'". [159] The Economist noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam methane reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars, and that if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles." [159] Over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles. [160] [13] The Washington Post asked in 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries"? [132] [161]

Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent." [162] A 2016 study in Energy by scientists at Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all-electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions". [163]

A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports concluded that the best hydrogen-fuel-cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle ... generate more greenhouse gas emissions than other powertrain technologies ... [and have] very high fuel costs. ... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption. [148] The US Department of Energy agrees, for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis, but not for most other pathways for generation. [164] A 2019 video by Real Engineering concluded that the hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance. [165]

Assessments since 2020 have concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are from 80% to 95% efficient. [166] [167] A 2021 assessment by CleanTechnica found that the vast majority of hydrogen was being produced was still polluting grey hydrogen, and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure, while the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology." [55] A 2022 study in Nature Electronics agreed. [168] Another 2022 article, in Recharge News , stated that ships are more likely to be powered by ammonia or methanol than hydrogen. [169] Also in 2022, Germany's Fraunhofer Institute concluded that hydrogen is unlikely to play a major role in road transport. [28]

A 2023 study by the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂. [14]

Safety and supply

Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of the low ignition energy (see also autoignition temperature) and high combustion energy of hydrogen, and because it tends to leak easily from tanks due to its small molecular size. [170] In 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device". [43] Hydrogen embrittlement is also a concern for the storage tank material, as well as the car parts surrounding the tank if chronic leakage is present. Hydrogen is odorless so leakages are not easily picked up without specialized detectors. [171]

Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported. [172] Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations. [173]

Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle

Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle infrastructure. [116]

Natural gas

ICE-based compressed natural gas(CNG), HCNG, LPG or LNG vehicles, collectively called natural gas vehicles (NGVs), use methane harvested from natural gas or Biogas as a fuel source. Methane has a higher energy density than hydrogen, and NGVs from Biogas are nearly carbon neutral. [174] Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicle technology has been available for many decades, and there is sufficient infrastructure in existing filling stations to provide both commercial and home refueling. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011, mostly in the form of bi-fuel vehicles. [175] The other use for natural gas is in steam reforming which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells. [8]

Methane is also an alternative rocket fuel. [176]

Plug-in electric

Plug-in hybrid

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are hybrid electric vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid to recharge the on-board battery pack, rather than relying purely on the internal combustion engine to drive a generator to power the electric motor and battery pack as in conventional hybrid vehicles. The PHEV concept augments the vehicle's fuel efficiency by allowing more EV mode driving, at the same time alleviating range anxiety by having the internal combustion engine (typically a turbo petrol engine) as an auxiliary powerplant or range extender.

Battery electric

In the light road vehicle segment, by 2023, 26 million battery electric vehicles had been sold worldwide, [26] and there were 65,730 public charging stations in North America, in addition to the availability of home and workplace charging via AC power plugs and sockets. [177] Long distance electric trucks require more megawatt charging infrastructure. [178]

Aviation biofuel

Hannah Ritchie has argued that there may not be enough land to produce enough aviation biofuel. [179]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell</span> Device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hybrid vehicle</span> Vehicle using two or more power sources

A hybrid vehicle is one that uses two or more distinct types of power, such as submarines that use diesel when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric vehicle</span> Vehicle propelled by one or more electric motors

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs include road and rail vehicles, electric boats and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell vehicle</span> Vehicle that uses a fuel cell to power its electric motor

A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is an electric vehicle that uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small battery or supercapacitor, to power its onboard electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles generate electricity generally using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas. Transporting and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants. Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in indoor applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in space applications. Fuel cells are being developed and tested in trucks, buses, boats, ships, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.

Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD), also known as Toyota Hybrid System II, is the brand name of Toyota Motor Corporation for the hybrid car drive train technology used in vehicles with the Toyota and Lexus marques. First introduced on the Prius, the technology is an option on several other Toyota and Lexus vehicles and has been adapted for the electric drive system of the hydrogen-powered Mirai, and for a plug-in hybrid version of the Prius. Previously, Toyota also licensed its HSD technology to Nissan for use in its Nissan Altima Hybrid. Its parts supplier Aisin offers similar hybrid transmissions to other car companies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green vehicle</span> Environmentally friendly vehicles

A green vehicle, clean vehicle, eco-friendly vehicle or environmentally friendly vehicle is a road motor vehicle that produces less harmful impacts to the environment than comparable conventional internal combustion engine vehicles running on gasoline or diesel, or one that uses certain alternative fuels. Presently, in some countries the term is used for any vehicle complying or surpassing the more stringent European emission standards, or California's zero-emissions vehicle standards, or the low-carbon fuel standards enacted in several countries.

Hydrogen technologies are technologies that relate to the production and use of hydrogen as a part hydrogen economy. Hydrogen technologies are applicable for many uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hybrid electric vehicle</span> Type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There is a variety of HEV types and the degree to which each functions as an electric vehicle (EV) also varies. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks, buses, boats, tow trucks, and aircraft also exist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternative fuel vehicle</span> Vehicle not powered by petrol or diesel

An alternative fuel vehicle is a motor vehicle that runs on alternative fuel rather than traditional petroleum fuels. The term also refers to any technology powering an engine that does not solely involve petroleum. Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental and health concerns including climate change and air pollution, high oil-prices and the potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toyota FCHV</span>

The Toyota FCHV is a hybrid hydrogen fuel cell vehicle development programme of the Toyota Motor Corporation, which was leased to a limited number of drivers in the United States and Japan beginning in 2002. The Toyota FCHV and Honda FCX, which began leasing on 2 December 2002, became the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Its first commercial fuel cell vehicle was developed from the FCHV-4, which was adapted from the Toyota Highlander body. "FCHV" stands for "Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle". A number of prototypes have been produced, up to the latest FCHV-adv ("advanced").

Japan's hydrogen highway is a network of hydrogen filling stations placed along roadsides that provide fuel for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCV). An HFCV is a vehicle that uses a fuel cell to convert hydrogen energy into electrical energy. The hydrogen that is used in fuel cell vehicles can be made using fossil or renewable resources. The hydrogen highway is necessary for HFCVs to be used. HFCV reduce tailpipe emissions of greenhouse gases. By May 2016, there were approximately 80 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell bus</span> Hydrogen powered bus

A fuel cell bus is a bus that uses a hydrogen fuel cell as its power source for electrically driven wheels, sometimes augmented in a hybrid fashion with batteries or a supercapacitor. The only emission from the bus is water. Several cities around the world have trialled and tested fuel cell buses, with over 5,600 buses in use worldwide, the majority of which are in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogen train</span> Train transporting or using hydrogen

In transportation, the original (2003) generic term "hydrail" includes hydrogen trains, zero-emission multiple units, or ZEMUs — generic terms describing rail vehicles, large or small, which use on-board hydrogen fuel as a source of energy to power the traction motors, or the auxiliaries, or both. Hydrail vehicles use the chemical energy of hydrogen for propulsion, either by burning hydrogen in a hydrogen internal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors, as the hydrogen fuel cell train. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling rail transportation is a basic element of the proposed hydrogen economy. The term has been used by research scholars and technicians around the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of hydrogen technologies</span>

This is a timeline of the history of hydrogen technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle</span> Vehicle with hydrogen internal combustion engine

A hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle (HICEV) is a type of hydrogen vehicle using an internal combustion engine. Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles are different from hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Instead, the hydrogen internal combustion engine is simply a modified version of the traditional gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. The absence of carbon means that no CO2 is produced, which eliminates the main greenhouse gas emission of a conventional petroleum engine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyundai Blue-Will</span> Motor vehicle

The Hyundai Blue-Will is a plug-in petrol-electric hybrid concept compact car designed by the South Korean car manufacturer Hyundai Motor Company. The vehicle was debuted at the 2009 Seoul Motor Show in South Korea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell forklift</span>

A fuel cell forklift is a fuel cell powered industrial forklift used to lift and transport materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toyota Mirai</span> Hydrogen fuel cell car

The Toyota Mirai is a mid-size hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV) manufactured by Toyota, and is the first FCV to be mass-produced and sold commercially. The Mirai was unveiled at the November 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show. As of November 2022, global sales totaled 21,475 units; the top-selling markets were the U.S. with 11,368 units, Japan with 7,435 and the rest of the world with 2,622.

There are numerous versions of vehicle propulsion systems. Many of those came into fruition due to need for cleaner vehicles. Each of them might have many abbreviations and some might be misleading. This article explains shortly what defines them.

References

  1. ↑ "A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis" (PDF). iphe.net. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  2. 1 2 Plötz, Patrick (January 2022). "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport". Nature Electronics. 5 (1): 8–10. doi:10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6. ISSN   2520-1131. S2CID   246465284.
  3. ↑ Poor, William (2024-08-20). "What happened to the "hydrogen highway"?". The Verge. Retrieved 2024-08-21.
  4. 1 2 "Toyota's Fuel-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale". The Wall Street Journal. 15 December 2014. Archived from the original on 26 May 2018.
  5. 1 2 "Toyota to quadruple production of Mirai fuel-cell vehicles by 2017". The Japan Times. 23 January 2015. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015.
  6. 1 2 "Toyota Mirai x Hydrogen: the world's first mass produced HFCV". 20 January 2017. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  7. 1 2 Voelcker, John. "Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles: Everything You Need to Know", Car and Driver, April 29, 2024
  8. 1 2 3 "Realising the hydrogen economy" Archived 2019-11-05 at the Wayback Machine ,Power Technology, 11 October 2019
  9. 1 2 Romm, Joseph. Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars" Archived 2014-08-21 at the Wayback Machine , ThinkProgress, August 5, 2014.
  10. ↑ "Wind-to-Hydrogen Project". Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2010.. See also Energy Department Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen Infrastructure Archived 2014-06-07 at the Wayback Machine , US Dept. of Energy, accessed November 15, 2014
  11. ↑ Berman, Bradley (2013-11-22). "Fuel Cells at Center Stage". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 2014-11-07. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
  12. ↑ Davies, Alex (2013-11-22). "Honda Is Working On Hydrogen Technology That Will Generate Power Inside Your Car". The Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2013-11-25. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
  13. 1 2 Cox, Julian. "Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles" Archived July 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine , CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014
  14. 1 2 Bjørnæs, Christian. "Global warming potential of hydrogen estimated", Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, June 7, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023
  15. 1 2 "First Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles Delivered on Same Day in Japan and the U.S." Honda. 3 December 2002. Archived from the original on 8 March 2023.
  16. 1 2 "Toyota to lease fuel-cell cars to state". The Japan Times. 19 November 2002. Archived from the original on 8 March 2023.
  17. ↑ McCarthy, J. (31 December 1995). "Hydrogen". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
  18. ↑ College of the Desert, “Module 1, Hydrogen Properties”, Revision 0, December 2001 Hydrogen Properties Archived 2017-07-01 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 2015-10-05.
  19. ↑ "NASA - Liquid Hydrogen--the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration". www.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  20. ↑ "Will hydrogen power the future of aerospace? | Hydrogen in space". WHA International, Inc. 2023-09-21. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  21. ↑ Sutton, George P. and Oscar Biblarz. Rocket Propulsion Elements Archived 2013-01-02 at the Wayback Machine , Seventh edition, John Wiley & Sons (2001), p. 257, ISBN   0-471-32642-9
  22. ↑ "Fuel cell use in the Space Shuttle". NASA. Archived from the original on 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2012-02-17.
  23. ↑ "Global Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Market Buoyed as OEMs Will Launch 17 Vehicle Models by 2027, IHS Says". IHS Inc. 4 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  24. ↑ "Honda discontinues hydrogen-fuelled Clarity FCV due to slow sales". June 16, 2021. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
  25. ↑ Chu, Yidan; Cui, Hongyang. Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 (PDF). International Council on Clean Transportation. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  26. 1 2 Global EV Outlook 2023. IEA. 26 April 2023. pp. 14–24. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  27. ↑ Woody, Todd. "Few Stations and $200 to Fill Up: Life on California’s 'Hydrogen Highway'", Bloomberg, April 4, 2024
  28. 1 2 Collins (l_collins), Leigh (2022-02-02). "'Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer". Recharge. Retrieved 2023-09-08.
  29. ↑ Max, John (2022-11-14). "Hydrogen-powered Vehicles Include Classic Car Conversions - H2 News". www.hydrogenfuelnews.com. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  30. ↑ "Classic cars accelerate along the road to sustainability". The Engineer. 2023-07-24. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  31. ↑ "What is the future of muscle cars…". Muscle Car Magazine (Australia). Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  32. ↑ "The history of hydrogen fuel cell cars". The Market Herald. 29 December 2021. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023.
  33. ↑ "Hydrogen-powered Honda achieves world first". The Japan Times. 26 July 2002. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019.
  34. ↑ "Honda FCX Clarity, world's first series production fuel cell car". Verizon Media. 18 November 2007. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021.
  35. ↑ "Hydrogen-powered vehicles on horizon". The Washington Times . 24 August 2009. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022.
  36. ↑ "Honda Sets Up World's First Fuel Cell Dealer Network". The Car Connection. 16 June 2018. Archived from the original on 21 May 2022.
  37. ↑ "Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell launching in 2014 with free hydrogen fuel". Drive.com.au. 22 November 2013. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022.
  38. ↑ "The Tucson Fuel Cell FAQ | HyundaiHydrogen.ca". Archived from the original on 2016-03-24. Retrieved 2016-03-28.
  39. 1 2 "Hyundai Motor's fuel-cell car sales miss target". Yonhap News Agency. 15 June 2015. Archived from the original on 21 June 2015.
  40. ↑ "Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell". Hyundai. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  41. ↑ "The World's First Mass-Production of FCEV". Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  42. ↑ "Euro NCAP Best in Class 2018 - new award for best performing hybrid & electric car of 2018 | Euro NCAP". www.euroncap.com. Archived from the original on 2019-06-24. Retrieved 2019-06-24.
  43. 1 2 "Hyundai recalls hydrogen fuel cell vehicles due to fire risk and tells owners to park them outdoors", Associated Press, via Boston.com, October 18, 2024
  44. ↑ "European Sales Of Toyota Mirai To Begin This September". InsideEVs.
  45. ↑ Voelcker, John. "Decades Of Promises: 'Dude, Where's My Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Car?'" Archived 2021-03-02 at the Wayback Machine , Yahoo.com, March 31, 2015
  46. ↑ "Toyota to Offer $69,000 Car After Musk Pans 'Fool Cells'". Bloomberg.com. 2014-06-25. Archived from the original on 2014-06-27. Retrieved 2014-06-27.
  47. 1 2 Ayre, James. "Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?" Archived 2015-01-03 at the Wayback Machine , CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. "Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan" Archived 2014-11-24 at the Wayback Machine , GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014
  48. ↑ "Sales, Production, and Export Results for March 2020 | Sales, Production, and Export Results | Profile | Company". Archived from the original on 2021-03-02. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
  49. ↑ Whoriskey, Peter. "The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back" Archived 2017-02-26 at the Wayback Machine , Washington Post, October 17, 2009
  50. ↑ Riversimple plans to lease a vehicle to the public by 2018 "Hydrogen Car You Can Actually Afford" Archived 2016-03-06 at the Wayback Machine , TopGear.com
  51. ↑ LaMonica, Martin. "Ford, Daimler, and Nissan Commit to Fuel Cells". technologyreview.com. Archived from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  52. ↑ "Toyota Wants Everyone to Know How It Made Its Hydrogen-Powered Car". Time. 5 January 2015. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022.
  53. ↑ Gordon-Bloomfield, Nikki. "Are Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars Doomed – And Have Electric Cars Won?" Archived 2017-04-06 at the Wayback Machine , TransportEvolved.com, April 4, 2017
  54. ↑ Williams, Keith. "The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move", Seeking Alpha , September 1, 2017
  55. 1 2 Morris, Charles. "Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?", CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021
  56. ↑ "Station Status", Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership. Retrieved October 17, 2024; and "Southern California Retail Hydrogen Station Network Status in California", Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership, July 19, 2024
  57. 1 2 Martin, Polly. "Toyota sued over lack of hydrogen availability for fuel cell cars in California", Hydrogen Insight, July 15, 2024
  58. ↑ Cozzi, Laura; Gould, Tim. World Energy Outlook 2022 (PDF). International Energy Agency. p. 148. Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates textfrom this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  59. ↑ "UPS begins testing hydrogen fuel-cell delivery truck - Roadshow". Roadshow. Archived from the original on May 3, 2017. Retrieved May 7, 2017.
  60. ↑ Ryu, Jung (2020-07-07). "Hyundai Starts Mass Production of Hydrogen Trucks". The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on 2020-09-25. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
  61. ↑ "Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell Heads to Europe for Commercial Use". Hyundai Media Newsroom. Archived from the original on 2020-09-25. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
  62. ↑ "World's First Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Truck, Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell, Heads to Europe for Commercial Use - Hyundai Motor Group TECH". tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-10. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
  63. ↑ "Hydrogen powered prime movers to roll into Townsville". Australian Renewable Energy Agency. 10 November 2021. Retrieved 2022-08-15.
  64. 1 2 "Potential of hydrogen as fuel for shipping". www.emsa.europa.eu. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  65. 1 2 "Towards the world's first hydrogen-powered commercial aircraft". www.airbus.com. 24 June 2021. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  66. ↑ Barnard, Michael (2023-10-22). "What's New On The Rungs Of Liebreich's Hydrogen Ladder?". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2024-03-10.
  67. ↑ "Ion tiger hydrogen UAV". Sciencedaily.com. 2009-10-15. Archived from the original on 2010-12-21. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  68. ↑ David Robertson (3 April 2008). "Boeing tests first hydrogen powered plane". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2008.
  69. ↑ "Boeing's 'Phantom Eye' Ford Fusion powered stratocraft". The Register. 2010-07-13. Archived from the original on 2010-07-14. Retrieved 2010-07-14.
  70. ↑ "Could fuel cells soon be used in ship propulsion?". Ship Technology. 2019-03-07. Archived from the original on 2019-07-24. Retrieved 2019-06-18.
  71. ↑ Abbasov, Faig (November 2018). "Roadmap to decarbonizing European shipping" (PDF). Transportenvironment.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 25, 2020. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
  72. ↑ "Ursus Lublin". Archived from the original on 2017-05-01. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
  73. ↑ "Connexxion orders 20 Solaris hydrogen buses for South Holland" Archived 2020-06-26 at the Wayback Machine , Green Car Congress, 15 April 2020
  74. ↑ "Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District". MTD. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
  75. ↑ Hanley, Steve. "French City Cancels Hydrogen Bus Contract, Opts for Electric Buses", CleanTechnica.com, January 11, 2022
  76. ↑ "Hydrogen engines get a lift". Accessmylibrary.com. 2008-10-01. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  77. ↑ HyICE [ permanent dead link ]
  78. ↑ Press release: "Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground", fuelcells.org, July 9, 2013
  79. ↑ Barnard, Michael. "On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer", CleanTechnica, January 2, 2024
  80. ↑ "Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014-2016" Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine , Research and Markets, November 6, 2014
  81. ↑ "Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 17, 2013.
  82. ↑ "Fuel cell technology". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  83. ↑ "Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years". GrafTech International. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  84. ↑ World energy outlook 2022. International Energy Agency. 27 October 2022. p. 150. Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates textfrom this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  85. ↑ "China Presents the World's First Hydrogen-Fueled Tram". 21 March 2015. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
  86. ↑ "China's Hydrogen-Powered Future Starts in Trams, Not Cars". Bloomberg.com. March 25, 2015. Archived from the original on 2016-11-25. Retrieved 2017-03-07– via www.bloomberg.com.
  87. ↑ "Germany launches world's first hydrogen-powered train" Archived 2018-09-17 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian, September 17, 2018
  88. ↑ Fisher, Sean (September 10, 2007). "Chinese Company Plans Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike". TreeHugger . Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
  89. ↑ "Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike". Gizmodo . November 9, 2007. Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
  90. ↑ Tibu, Florin (September 18, 2014). "Hy-Cycle Is Australia's First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bicycle. Motorcycles Next, Maybe?". autoevolution.com. Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
  91. ↑ Arthur, David (January 30, 2016). "Future Tech: Canyon's Eco Speed hydrogen powered e-bike concept". ebiketips.road.cc. Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
  92. ↑ Chaya, Lynn (November 3, 2017). "Pragma Industries' alpha model is a powerful hydrogen-fueled bike". Designboom . Archived from the original on August 19, 2019. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
  93. ↑ Coxworth, Ben. "World's first fuel-cell e-bike gets a big boost in range" Archived 2019-08-15 at the Wayback Machine , NewAtlas.com, August 13, 2019
  94. ↑ "HydroRange Waterstof Range Extender". Alles over Waterstof (in Dutch). Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  95. ↑ "HydroCargo 'Last Mile' bakfiets". Alles over Waterstof (in Dutch). Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  96. ↑ Alter, Lloyd. "Hydrogen-powered e-bike cranked up to 93 mile range" Archived 2019-08-15 at the Wayback Machine , TreeHugger, August 14, 2019
  97. ↑ "General Motors establishing new military defense division". AutoNews.com. October 9, 2017. Archived from the original on October 9, 2020. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
  98. ↑ "GM Outlines Possibilities for Flexible, Autonomous Fuel Cell Electric Platform". GM Media Release. October 6, 2017. Archived from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
  99. ↑ "Hydrogen scooter by vectrix". Jalopnik.com. 2007-07-13. Archived from the original on 2009-06-03. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  100. ↑ "Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter". Hydrogencarsnow.com. 2009-10-27. Archived from the original on 2011-01-26. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  101. ↑ "Fhybrid fuel cell-electric hybrid scooter". Io.tudelft.nl. Archived from the original on 2009-06-04. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  102. ↑ "SUZUKI - BURGMAN Fuel-Cell Scooter". Archived from the original on 10 March 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  103. ↑ "Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd. --fuel cell systems and fue…". apfct.com. 1 January 2013. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  104. ↑ "India Showcases Hydrogen Fuel Auto-Rickshaws |". February 21, 2012. Archived from the original on September 20, 2019. Retrieved September 21, 2019.
  105. ↑ Nandi, Jayashree. "IIT-Delhi scientists develop autos that run on hydrogen; cause negligible pollution". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 2019-09-21. Retrieved 2019-09-21.
  106. ↑ "Autostudi S.r.l. H-Due". Ecofriend.org. 2008-04-15. Archived from the original on 2012-12-09. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  107. ↑ New Holland Wins Gold for Energy Independent Farm Concept Archived 2012-07-28 at archive.today or Hydrogen-powered tractor in an Energy Independent Farm Archived 2009-07-02 at the Wayback Machine
  108. ↑ "Cummins and Versatile partner to bring 15L hydrogen engines to ag market". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
  109. ↑ "New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford". Motorsportsjournal.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-09. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  110. ↑ "Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation looks to revolutionize motorsports". Autoweek. 9 January 2007. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
  111. ↑ "Emission Standards Reference Guide for On-road and Nonroad Vehicles and Engines" Archived 2020-10-11 at the Wayback Machine , US EPA (2012), accessed October 9, 2020
  112. ↑ "H2Mobility - Hydrogen Vehicles - netinform". Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  113. ↑ "Hydrogen Fuel Cars 1807–1986" Archived 2016-03-31 at the Wayback Machine , Hydrogen Cars Now, accessed April 7, 2016
  114. ↑ US 3844262,Dieges, Paul Bertrand,"Vaporization of exhaust products in hydrogen-oxygen engine",published 1974-10-29
  115. ↑ "MAZDA NEWSROOM｜ Mazda Starts Leasing Rotary Hydrogen Vehicles｜NEWS RELEASES". Mazda News Releases. 5 May 2019. Archived from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2020-08-30.
  116. 1 2 Eberle, Ulrich; Mueller, Bernd; von Helmolt, Rittmar (2012-07-15). "Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012". Royal Society of Chemistry. Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. Retrieved 2013-01-08.
  117. ↑ University of Copenhagen (24 August 2020). "Fuel cells for hydrogen vehicles are becoming longer lasting". phys.org. Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
  118. ↑ Rossmeisl, Jan (24 August 2020). "Hydrogen vehicles might soon become the global norm". EurekAlert!. Archived from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
  119. ↑ Telias, Gabriela et al. RD&D cooperation for the development of fuel cell hybrid and electric vehicles Archived 2014-09-03 at the Wayback Machine , NREL.gov, November 2010, accessed September 1, 2014
  120. ↑ LeSage, Jon. Toyota says freezing temps pose zero problems for fuel cell vehicles Archived 2014-08-01 at the Wayback Machine , Autoblog.com, February 6, 2014
  121. ↑ Mishler, Jeff, Yun Wang, Partha P. Mukherjee, Rangachary Mukundan, and Rodney L. Borup, "Subfreezing operation of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Ice formation and cell performance loss", Electrochimica Acta, 65 (2012) pp. 127–133
  122. ↑ Wang, Y. "Analysis of the Key Parameters in the Cold Start of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells", J. Electrochem. Soc., 154 (2007) pp. B1041–B1048
  123. ↑ Wang, Y, P. P. Mukherjee, J. Mishler, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, “Cold start of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Three-stage startup characterization”, Electrochimica Acta, 55 (2010) pp. 2636–2644
  124. ↑ Mishler, J., Y. Wang, R. Lujan, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, "An Experimental Study of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Operation at Sub-Freezing Temperatures", Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 160 (6) pp. F514–F521 (2013)
  125. ↑ "EERE Service life 5000 hours" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-05-27. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  126. ↑ "Fuel Cell School Buses: Report to Congress" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-12-24. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  127. ↑ "Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky". Archived from the original on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
  128. ↑ David Z. Morris. "Why Japan wants to transform into a 'hydrogen society' Archived 2016-04-04 at the Wayback Machine " Fortune (magazine) , 21 October 2015. Quote: "Unlike gasoline, solar, or nuclear, hydrogen isn’t an energy source—just a method of energy storage. “Hydrogen is an energy carrier in the same sense that electricity is,” says David Keith"
  129. ↑ Schultz, M.G., Thomas Diehl, Guy P. Brasseur, and Werner Zittel. "Air Pollution and Climate-Forcing Impacts of a Global Hydrogen Economy" Archived 2007-08-28 at the Wayback Machine , Science, October 24, 2003 302: 624-627
  130. ↑ "Wind-to-Hydrogen Project". Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
  131. ↑ Agatie, Cristian. "Hydrogen Cars Are Dead as Projects Are Scrapped and Refueling Prices Go Through the Roof", Auto Evolution, September 20, 2023
  132. 1 2 Suplee, Curt. "Don't bet on a hydrogen car anytime soon" Archived 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine . Washington Post, November 17, 2009
  133. ↑ Werner Zittel; Reinhold Wurster (8 July 1996). "Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis". HyWeb: Knowledge – Hydrogen in the Energy Sector. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH. Archived from the original on 7 February 2007.
  134. ↑ L. Soler, J. Macanás, M. Muñoz, J. Casado. Journal of Power Sources 169 (2007) 144-149
  135. ↑ F. Kreith, "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Utilization" in Journal of Energy Resources Technology (2004), 126: 249–257.
  136. ↑ Bossel, Ulf. "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?", Archived 2008-07-24 at the Wayback Machine Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006
  137. ↑ "US Energy Information Administration, "World Primary Energy Production by Source, 1970–2004"". Eia.doe.gov. Archived from the original on 2010-06-02. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  138. ↑ Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy Archived 2012-07-24 at archive.today . Retrieved 17-July-2007.
  139. ↑ First Danish Hydrogen Energy Plant Is Operational [usurped] . Retrieved 17-July-2007.
  140. ↑ Eberle, Ulrich; Mueller, Bernd; von Helmolt, Rittmar. "Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012". Energy & Environmental Science. Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. Retrieved 2014-12-19.
  141. ↑ Lanz, Walter (December 2001). "Hydrogen Properties" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. College of the Desert. Energy Density. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-07-01. Retrieved 2015-10-05. On this basis, hydrogen's energy density is poor (since it has such low density) although its energy to weight ratio is the best of all fuels (because it is so light).
  142. ↑ Zubrin, Robert (2007). Energy Victory: Winning the War on Terror by Breaking Free of Oil. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 121. ISBN   978-1-59102-591-7.
  143. ↑ Mealey, Rachel. ”Automotive hydrogen membranes-huge breakthrough for cars" Archived 2019-06-10 at the Wayback Machine , ABC, August 8, 2018
  144. ↑ Cozzi, Laura; Gould, Tim. World Energy Outlook 2022 (PDF). International Energy Agency. p. 400. Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates textfrom this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  145. ↑ Laura, Cozzi; Goild, Tim. World Energy Outlook 2022 (PDF). International Energy Agency. pp. 148–149. Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates textfrom this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  146. ↑ Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State Archived 2016-03-15 at the Wayback Machine , Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed July 21, 2024
  147. ↑ Jones, Nicola. "Whatever happened to the hydrogen highway?" Archived 2016-03-12 at the Wayback Machine , Pique, February 9, 2012, accessed March 17, 2016
  148. 1 2 Voelcker, John. "Energy use for hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles: higher than electrics, even hybrids (analysis)" Archived 2021-03-02 at the Wayback Machine , Green Car Reports, May 4, 2017
  149. ↑ "DOE codes and standards". Hydrogen.energy.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  150. ↑ "GSA's Transit Bus Program Awards Include First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Bus Offerings". www.gsa.gov. 21 December 2021. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  151. ↑ "Alternative Fuels Data Center: Hydrogen Laws and Incentives in New York". afdc.energy.gov. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
  152. ↑ "Hell and Hydrogen". MIT Technology Review. MIT. 1 March 2007. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
  153. ↑ Meyers, Jeremy P. "Getting Back Into Gear: Fuel Cell Development After the Hype" Archived 2011-07-25 at the Wayback Machine . The Electrochemical Society Interface, Winter 2008, pp. 36–39, accessed August 7, 2011
  154. ↑ White, Charlie. "Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are a fraud" Archived 2014-06-19 at the Wayback Machine Dvice TV, July 31, 2008
  155. ↑ Squatriglia, Chuck. "Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years" Archived 2014-03-27 at the Wayback Machine , Wired, May 12, 2008
  156. ↑ Boyd, Robert S. (May 15, 2007). "Hydrogen cars may be a long time coming". McClatchy Newspapers. Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
  157. ↑ Romm, Joseph (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate . New York: Island Press. ISBN   1-55963-703-X. ( ISBN   1-55963-703-X), Chapter 5
  158. ↑ Romm, Joseph. "Tesla Trumps Toyota Part II: The Big Problem With Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles" Archived 2014-08-21 at the Wayback Machine , CleanProgress.com, August 13, 2014; "Tesla Trumps Toyota 3: Why Electric Vehicles Are Beating Hydrogen Cars Today" Archived 2015-04-08 at the Wayback Machine , CleanProgress.com, August 25, 2014; and Romm, Joseph. "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can't Compete with Pure Electric Cars" Archived 2014-08-21 at the Wayback Machine , CleanProgress.com, August 5, 2014
  159. 1 2 Wrigglesworth, Phil. "The car of the perpetual future"' Archived 2017-05-20 at the Wayback Machine September 4, 2008, retrieved on September 15, 2008
  160. ↑ "Hydrogen Cars' Lifecycle Emits More Carbon Than Gas Cars, Study Says", Archived 2010-01-06 at the Wayback Machine Digital Trends , January 1, 2010
  161. ↑ Chatsko, Maxx. "1 Giant Obstacle Keeping Hydrogen Fuel Out of Your Gas Tank" Archived 2013-11-26 at the Wayback Machine , The Motley Fool, November 23, 2013
  162. ↑ Blanco, Sebastian. "VW's Krebs talks hydrogen, says 'most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity'" Archived 2013-11-25 at the Wayback Machine , AutoblogGreen , November 20, 2013
  163. ↑ "Battery electric cars are a better choice for emissions reduction". PVBuzz.com. 15 November 2016. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  164. ↑ "Alternative Fuels Data Center: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Emissions". www.afdc.energy.gov. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017.
  165. ↑ Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique. "This Video Compares BEVs to FCEVs and the More Efficient Is..." Archived 2020-10-26 at the Wayback Machine , InsideEVs.com, September 29, 2019
  166. ↑ Baxter, Tom (3 June 2020). "Hydrogen cars won't overtake electric vehicles because they're hampered by the laws of science". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  167. ↑ Fernandez, Ray (April 14, 2022). "Here's Why Hydrogen Cars Were Doomed to Fail". SlashGear. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
  168. ↑ Plötz, Patrick. "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport", Nature Electronics , vol. 5, pp. 8–10, January 31, 2022
  169. ↑ Parkes (627156db9d68b), Rachel (2022-05-03). "Liquid hydrogen as shipping fuel – Pioneering intercontinental H2 carrier gets technical green light". Recharge. Retrieved 2022-05-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  170. ↑ Utgikar, Vivek P; Thiesen, Todd (2005). "Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles". Technology in Society. 27 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005.
  171. ↑ Lee, Jonathan A. "Hydrogen Embrittlement", NASA, April 2016
  172. ↑ Dobson, Geoff (12 June 2019). "Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt". EV Talk. Archived from the original on 23 June 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  173. ↑ Woodrow, Melanie (3 June 2019). "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion". ABC news. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  174. ↑ "Car Fueled With Biogas From Cow Manure: WWU Students Convert Methane Into Natural Gas". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  175. ↑ "Worldwide NGV Statistics". NGV Journal. Archived from the original on 2012-02-20. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
  176. ↑ "The wild physics of Elon Musk's methane-guzzling super-rocket". Wired UK. ISSN   1357-0978 . Retrieved 2022-05-16.
  177. ↑ "Alternative Fueling Station Locator", Alternative Fuels Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy, accessed September 9, 2023
  178. ↑ "Megawatt charging network for long-haul trucks eeNews Power". EENewsEurope. 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2022-05-16.
  179. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah. "How much biofuel would we need to decarbonise aviation?". www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-21.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.