Microbial fuel cell

Last updated

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a type of bioelectrochemical fuel cell system [1] also known as micro fuel cell that generates electric current by diverting electrons produced from the microbial oxidation of reduced compounds (also known as fuel or electron donor) on the anode to oxidized compounds such as oxygen (also known as oxidizing agent or electron acceptor) on the cathode through an external electrical circuit. MFCs produce electricity by using the electrons derived from biochemical reactions catalyzed by bacteria.Comprehensive Biotechnology (Third Edition) MFCs can be grouped into two general categories: mediated and unmediated. The first MFCs, demonstrated in the early 20th century, used a mediator: a chemical that transfers electrons from the bacteria in the cell to the anode. Unmediated MFCs emerged in the 1970s; in this type of MFC the bacteria typically have electrochemically active redox proteins such as cytochromes on their outer membrane that can transfer electrons directly to the anode. [2] [3] In the 21st century MFCs have started to find commercial use in wastewater treatment. [4]

Contents

History

The idea of using microbes to produce electricity was conceived in the early twentieth century. Michael Cressé Potter initiated the subject in 1911. [5] Potter managed to generate electricity from Saccharomyces cerevisiae , but the work received little coverage. In 1931, Barnett Cohen created microbial half fuel cells that, when connected in series, were capable of producing over 35 volts with only a current of 2 milliamps. [6]

A study by DelDuca et al. used hydrogen produced by the fermentation of glucose by Clostridium butyricum as the reactant at the anode of a hydrogen and air fuel cell. Though the cell functioned, it was unreliable owing to the unstable nature of hydrogen production by the micro-organisms. [7] This issue was resolved by Suzuki et al. in 1976, [8] who produced a successful MFC design a year later. [9]

In the late 1970s, little was understood about how microbial fuel cells functioned. The concept was studied by Robin M. Allen and later by H. Peter Bennetto. People saw the fuel cell as a possible method for the generation of electricity for developing countries. Bennetto's work, starting in the early 1980s, helped build an understanding of how fuel cells operate and he was seen by many[ who? ] as the topic's foremost authority.

In May 2007, the University of Queensland, Australia completed a prototype MFC as a cooperative effort with Foster's Brewing. The prototype, a 10 L design, converted brewery wastewater into carbon dioxide, clean water and electricity. The group had plans to create a pilot-scale model for an upcoming international bio-energy conference. [10]

Definition

A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by the action of microorganisms. [11] These electrochemical cells are constructed using either a bioanode and/or a biocathode. Most MFCs contain a membrane to separate the compartments of the anode (where oxidation takes place) and the cathode (where reduction takes place). The electrons produced during oxidation are transferred directly to an electrode or to a redox mediator species. The electron flux is moved to the cathode. The charge balance of the system is maintained by ionic movement inside the cell, usually across an ionic membrane. Most MFCs use an organic electron donor that is oxidized to produce CO2, protons, and electrons. Other electron donors have been reported, such as sulfur compounds or hydrogen. [12] The cathode reaction uses a variety of electron acceptors, most often oxygen (O2). Other electron acceptors studied include metal recovery by reduction, [13] water to hydrogen, [14] nitrate reduction, [15] [16] and sulfate reduction.

Applications

Power generation

MFCs are attractive for power generation applications that require only low power, but where replacing batteries may be impractical, such as wireless sensor networks. [17] [18] [19] Wireless sensors powered by microbial fuel cells can then for example be used for remote monitoring (conservation). [20]

Virtually any organic material could be used to feed the fuel cell, including coupling cells to wastewater treatment plants. Chemical process wastewater [21] [22] and synthetic wastewater [23] [24] have been used to produce bioelectricity in dual- and single-chamber mediator less MFCs (uncoated graphite electrodes).

Higher power production was observed with a biofilm-covered graphite anode. [25] [26] Fuel cell emissions are well under regulatory limits. [27] MFCs convert energy more efficiently than standard internal combustion engines, which are limited by the Carnot efficiency. In theory, an MFC is capable of energy efficiency far beyond 50%. [28] Rozendal produced hydrogen with 8 times less energy input than conventional hydrogen production technologies.

Moreover, MFCs can also work at a smaller scale. Electrodes in some cases need only be 7 μm thick by 2 cm long, [29] such that an MFC can replace a battery. It provides a renewable form of energy and does not need to be recharged.

MFCs operate well in mild conditions, 20 °C to 40 °C and at pH of around 7 [30] but lack the stability required for long-term medical applications such as in pacemakers.

Power stations can be based on aquatic plants such as algae. If sited adjacent to an existing power system, the MFC system can share its electricity lines. [31]

Education

Soil-based microbial fuel cells serve as educational tools, as they encompass multiple scientific disciplines (microbiology, geochemistry, electrical engineering, etc.) and can be made using commonly available materials, such as soils and items from the refrigerator. Kits for home science projects and classrooms are available. [32] One example of microbial fuel cells being used in the classroom is in the IBET (Integrated Biology, English, and Technology) curriculum for Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology. Several educational videos and articles are also available on the International Society for Microbial Electrochemistry and Technology (ISMET Society)" [33] ".

Biosensor

The current generated from a microbial fuel cell is directly proportional to the organic-matter content of wastewater used as the fuel. MFCs can measure the solute concentration of wastewater (i.e., as a biosensor). [34]

Wastewater is commonly assessed for its biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) values.[ clarification needed ] BOD values are determined by incubating samples for 5 days with proper source of microbes, usually activated sludge collected from wastewater plants.

An MFC-type BOD sensor can provide real-time BOD values. Oxygen and nitrate are interfering preferred electron acceptors over the anode, reducing current generation from an MFC. Therefore, MFC BOD sensors underestimate BOD values in the presence of these electron acceptors. This can be avoided by inhibiting aerobic and nitrate respiration in the MFC using terminal oxidase inhibitors such as cyanide and azide. [35] Such BOD sensors are commercially available.

The United States Navy is considering microbial fuel cells for environmental sensors. The use of microbial fuel cells to power environmental sensors could provide power for longer periods and enable the collection and retrieval of undersea data without a wired infrastructure. The energy created by these fuel cells is enough to sustain the sensors after an initial startup time. [36] Due to undersea conditions (high salt concentrations, fluctuating temperatures and limited nutrient supply), the Navy may deploy MFCs with a mixture of salt-tolerant microorganisms that would allow for a more complete utilization of available nutrients. Shewanella oneidensis is their primary candidate, but other heat- and cold-tolerant Shewanella spp may also be included. [37]

A first self-powered and autonomous BOD/COD biosensor has been developed and enables detection of organic contaminants in freshwater. The sensor relies only on power produced by MFCs and operates continuously without maintenance. It turns on the alarm to inform about contamination level: the increased frequency of the signal warns about a higher contamination level, while a low frequency informs about a low contamination level. [38]

Biorecovery

In 2010, A. ter Heijne et al. [39] constructed a device capable of producing electricity and reducing Cu2+ ions to copper metal.

Microbial electrolysis cells have been demonstrated to produce hydrogen. [40]

Wastewater treatment

MFCs are used in water treatment to harvest energy utilizing anaerobic digestion. The process can also reduce pathogens. However, it requires temperatures upwards of 30 degrees C and requires an extra step in order to convert biogas to electricity. Spiral spacers may be used to increase electricity generation by creating a helical flow in the MFC. Scaling MFCs is a challenge because of the power output challenges of a larger surface area. [41]

Types

Mediated

Most microbial cells are electrochemically inactive. Electron transfer from microbial cells to the electrode is facilitated by mediators such as thionine, methyl viologen, methyl blue, humic acid, and neutral red. [42] [43] Most available mediators are expensive and toxic.

Mediator-free

A plant microbial fuel cell (PMFC) Plant Microbial Fuel Cell.png
A plant microbial fuel cell (PMFC)

Mediator-free microbial fuel cells use electrochemically active bacteria such as Shewanella putrefaciens [44] and Aeromonas hydrophila [45] to transfer electrons directly from the bacterial respiratory enzyme to the electrode. Some bacteria are able to transfer their electron production via the pili on their external membrane. Mediator-free MFCs are less well characterized, such as the strain of bacteria used in the system, type of ion-exchange membrane and system conditions (temperature, pH, etc.)

Mediator-free microbial fuel cells can run on wastewater and derive energy directly from certain plants and O2. This configuration is known as a plant microbial fuel cell. Possible plants include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines and algae. [46] [47] [48] Given that the power is obtained using living plants (in situ-energy production), this variant can provide ecological advantages.

Microbial electrolysis

One variation of the mediator-less MFC is the microbial electrolysis cell (MEC). While MFCs produce electric current by the bacterial decomposition of organic compounds in water, MECs partially reverse the process to generate hydrogen or methane by applying a voltage to bacteria. This supplements the voltage generated by the microbial decomposition of organics, leading to the electrolysis of water or methane production. [49] [50] A complete reversal of the MFC principle is found in microbial electrosynthesis, in which carbon dioxide is reduced by bacteria using an external electric current to form multi-carbon organic compounds. [51]

Soil-based

A soil-based MFC SoilMFC.png
A soil-based MFC

Soil-based microbial fuel cells adhere to the basic MFC principles, whereby soil acts as the nutrient-rich anodic media, the inoculum and the proton exchange membrane (PEM). The anode is placed at a particular depth within the soil, while the cathode rests on top the soil and is exposed to air.

Soils naturally teem with diverse microbes, including electrogenic bacteria needed for MFCs, and are full of complex sugars and other nutrients that have accumulated from plant and animal material decay. Moreover, the aerobic (oxygen consuming) microbes present in the soil act as an oxygen filter, much like the expensive PEM materials used in laboratory MFC systems, which cause the redox potential of the soil to decrease with greater depth. Soil-based MFCs are becoming popular educational tools for science classrooms. [32]

Sediment microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) have been applied for wastewater treatment. Simple SMFCs can generate energy while decontaminating wastewater. Most such SMFCs contain plants to mimic constructed wetlands. By 2015 SMFC tests had reached more than 150 L. [52]

In 2015 researchers announced an SMFC application that extracts energy and charges a battery. Salts dissociate into positively and negatively charged ions in water and move and adhere to the respective negative and positive electrodes, charging the battery and making it possible to remove the salt effecting microbial capacitive desalination . The microbes produce more energy than is required for the desalination process. [53] In 2020, a European research project achieved the treatment of seawater into fresh water for human consumption with an energy consumption around 0.5 kWh/m3, which represents an 85% reduction in current energy consumption respect state of the art desalination technologies. Furthermore, the biological process from which the energy is obtained simultaneously purifies residual water for its discharge in the environment or reuse in agricultural/industrial uses. This has been achieved in the desalination innovation center that Aqualia has opened in Denia, Spain early 2020. [54]

Phototrophic biofilm

Phototrophic biofilm MFCs (ner) use a phototrophic biofilm anode containing photosynthetic microorganism such as chlorophyta and candyanophyta. They carry out photosynthesis and thus produce organic metabolites and donate electrons. [55]

One study found that PBMFCs display a power density sufficient for practical applications. [56]

The sub-category of phototrophic MFCs that use purely oxygenic photosynthetic material at the anode are sometimes called biological photovoltaic systems. [57]

Nanoporous membrane

The United States Naval Research Laboratory developed nanoporous membrane microbial fuel cells that use a non-PEM to generate passive diffusion within the cell. [58] The membrane is a nonporous polymer filter (nylon, cellulose, or polycarbonate). It offers comparable power densities to Nafion (a well-known PEM) with greater durability. Porous membranes allow passive diffusion thereby reducing the necessary power supplied to the MFC in order to keep the PEM active and increasing the total energy output. [59]

MFCs that do not use a membrane can deploy anaerobic bacteria in aerobic environments. However, membrane-less MFCs experience cathode contamination by the indigenous bacteria and the power-supplying microbe. The novel passive diffusion of nanoporous membranes can achieve the benefits of a membrane-less MFC without worry of cathode contamination.Nanoporous membranes are also 11 times cheaper than Nafion (Nafion-117, $0.22/cm2 vs. polycarbonate, <$0.02/cm2). [60]

Ceramic membrane

PEM membranes can be replaced with ceramic materials. Ceramic membrane costs can be as low as $5.66/m2. The macroporous structure of ceramic membranes allows for good transport of ionic species. [61]

The materials that have been successfully employed in ceramic MFCs are earthenware, alumina, mullite, pyrophyllite, and terracotta. [61] [62] [63]

Generation process

When microorganisms consume a substance such as sugar in aerobic conditions, they produce carbon dioxide and water. However, when oxygen is not present, they may produce carbon dioxide, hydrons (hydrogen ions), and electrons, as described below for sucrose: [64]

C12H22O11 + 13H2O → 12CO2 + 48H+ + 48e−

 

 

 

 

(Eqt. 1)

Microbial fuel cells use inorganic mediators to tap into the electron transport chain of cells and channel electrons produced. The mediator crosses the outer cell lipid membranes and bacterial outer membrane; then, it begins to liberate electrons from the electron transport chain that normally would be taken up by oxygen or other intermediates.

The now-reduced mediator exits the cell laden with electrons that it transfers to an electrode; this electrode becomes the anode. The release of the electrons recycles the mediator to its original oxidized state, ready to repeat the process. This can happen only under anaerobic conditions; if oxygen is present, it will collect the electrons, as it has more free energy to release.

Certain bacteria can circumvent the use of inorganic mediators by making use of special electron transport pathways known collectively as extracellular electron transfer (EET). EET pathways allow the microbe to directly reduce compounds outside of the cell, and can be used to enable direct electrochemical communication with the anode. [65]

In MFC operation, the anode is the terminal electron acceptor recognized by bacteria in the anodic chamber. Therefore, the microbial activity is strongly dependent on the anode's redox potential. A Michaelis–Menten curve was obtained between the anodic potential and the power output of an acetate-driven MFC. A critical anodic potential seems to provide maximum power output. [66]

Potential mediators include natural red, methylene blue, thionine, and resorufin. [67]

Organisms capable of producing an electric current are termed exoelectrogens. In order to turn this current into usable electricity, exoelectrogens have to be accommodated in a fuel cell.

The mediator and a micro-organism such as yeast, are mixed together in a solution to which is added a substrate such as glucose. This mixture is placed in a sealed chamber to prevent oxygen from entering, thus forcing the micro-organism to undertake anaerobic respiration. An electrode is placed in the solution to act as the anode.

In the second chamber of the MFC is another solution and the positively charged cathode. It is the equivalent of the oxygen sink at the end of the electron transport chain, external to the biological cell. The solution is an oxidizing agent that picks up the electrons at the cathode. As with the electron chain in the yeast cell, this could be a variety of molecules such as oxygen, although a more convenient option is a solid oxidizing agent, which requires less volume.

Connecting the two electrodes is a wire (or other electrically conductive path). Completing the circuit and connecting the two chambers is a salt bridge or ion-exchange membrane. This last feature allows the protons produced, as described in Eqt. 1 , to pass from the anode chamber to the cathode chamber.

The reduced mediator carries electrons from the cell to the electrode. Here the mediator is oxidized as it deposits the electrons. These then flow across the wire to the second electrode, which acts as an electron sink. From here they pass to an oxidizing material. Also the hydrogen ions/protons are moved from the anode to the cathode via a proton exchange membrane such as Nafion. They will move across to the lower concentration gradient and be combined with the oxygen but to do this they need an electron. This generates current and the hydrogen is used sustaining the concentration gradient.

Algal biomass has been observed to give high energy when used as the substrate in microbial fuel cell. [68]

Applications in Environmental Remediation

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have emerged as promising tools for environmental remediation due to their unique ability to utilize the metabolic activities of microorganisms for both electricity generation and pollutant degradation. [69] MFCs find applications across diverse contexts in environmental remediation. One primary application is in bioremediation, where the electroactive microorganisms on the MFC anode actively participate in the breakdown of organic pollutants, providing a sustainable and efficient method for pollutant removal. Moreover, MFCs play a significant role in wastewater treatment by simultaneously generating electricity and enhancing water quality through the microbial degradation of contaminants. These fuel cells can be deployed in situ, allowing for continuous and autonomous remediation in contaminated sites. Furthermore, their versatility extends to sediment microbial fuel cells (SMFCs), which are capable of removing heavy metals and nutrients from sediments. [70] By integrating MFCs with sensors, they enable remote environmental monitoring in challenging locations. The applications of microbial fuel cells in environmental remediation highlight their potential to convert pollutants into a renewable energy source while actively contributing to the restoration and preservation of ecosystems.

Challenges and advances

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) offer significant potential as sustainable and innovative technologies, but they are not without their challenges. One major obstacle lies in the optimization of MFC performance, which remains a complex task due to various factors including microbial diversity, electrode materials, and reactor design. [71] The development of cost-effective and long-lasting electrode materials presents another hurdle, as it directly affects the economic viability of MFCs on a larger scale. Furthermore, the scaling up of MFCs for practical applications poses engineering and logistical challenges. Nonetheless, ongoing research in microbial fuel cell technology continues to address these obstacles. Scientists are actively exploring new electrode materials, enhancing microbial communities to improve efficiency, and optimizing reactor configurations. Moreover, advancements in synthetic biology and genetic engineering have opened up possibilities for designing custom microbes with enhanced electron transfer capabilities, pushing the boundaries of MFC performance. [72] Collaborative efforts between multidisciplinary fields are also contributing to a deeper understanding of MFC mechanisms and expanding their potential applications in areas such as wastewater treatment, environmental remediation, and sustainable energy production.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrochemical cell</span> Electro-chemical device

An electrochemical cell is a device that generates electrical energy from chemical reactions. Electrical energy can also be applied to these cells to cause chemical reactions to occur. Electrochemical cells that generate an electric current are called voltaic or galvanic cells and those that generate chemical reactions, via electrolysis for example, are called electrolytic cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell</span> Device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrolysis</span> Technique in chemistry and manufacturing

In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential. The word "lysis" means to separate or break, so in terms, electrolysis would mean "breakdown via electricity."

Anaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen (O2). Although oxygen is not the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain.

Gastrobot, meaning literally 'stomach robot', was a term coined in 1998 by the University of South Florida Institute's director, Dr. Stuart Wilkinson. A gastrobot is "...an intelligent machine (robot) that derives all its energy requirements from the digestion of real food." The gastrobot's energy intake may come in the form of carbohydrates, lipids etc., or may be a simpler source, such as alcohol.

A regenerative fuel cell or reverse fuel cell (RFC) is a fuel cell run in reverse mode, which consumes electricity and chemical B to produce chemical A. By definition, the process of any fuel cell could be reversed. However, a given device is usually optimized for operating in one mode and may not be built in such a way that it can be operated backwards. Standard fuel cells operated backwards generally do not make very efficient systems unless they are purpose-built to do so as with high-pressure electrolysers, regenerative fuel cells, solid-oxide electrolyser cells and unitized regenerative fuel cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell</span> Power generation technology

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable fuel-cell applications. Their distinguishing features include lower temperature/pressure ranges and a special proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane. PEMFCs generate electricity and operate on the opposite principle to PEM electrolysis, which consumes electricity. They are a leading candidate to replace the aging alkaline fuel-cell technology, which was used in the Space Shuttle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrolysis of water</span> Electricity-induced chemical reaction

Electrolysis of water is using electricity to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel, but must be kept apart from the oxygen as the mixture would be extremely explosive. Separately pressurised into convenient 'tanks' or 'gas bottles', hydrogen can be used for oxyhydrogen welding and other applications, as the hydrogen / oxygen flame can reach approximately 2,800°C.

An enzymatic biofuel cell is a specific type of fuel cell that uses enzymes as a catalyst to oxidize its fuel, rather than precious metals. Enzymatic biofuel cells, while currently confined to research facilities, are widely prized for the promise they hold in terms of their relatively inexpensive components and fuels, as well as a potential power source for bionic implants.

Electromethanogenesis is a form of electrofuel production where methane is produced by direct biological conversion of electrical current and carbon dioxide.

<i>Rhodopseudomonas palustris</i> Species of bacterium

Rhodopseudomonas palustris is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative purple nonsulfur bacterium, notable for its ability to switch between four different modes of metabolism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbial electrolysis cell</span>

A microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) is a technology related to Microbial fuel cells (MFC). Whilst MFCs produce an electric current from the microbial decomposition of organic compounds, MECs partially reverse the process to generate hydrogen or methane from organic material by applying an electric current. The electric current would ideally be produced by a renewable source of power. The hydrogen or methane produced can be used to produce electricity by means of an additional PEM fuel cell or internal combustion engine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exoelectrogen</span>

An exoelectrogen normally refers to a microorganism that has the ability to transfer electrons extracellularly. While exoelectrogen is the predominant name, other terms have been used: electrochemically active bacteria, anode respiring bacteria, and electricigens. Electrons exocytosed in this fashion are produced following ATP production using an electron transport chain (ETC) during oxidative phosphorylation. Conventional cellular respiration requires a final electron acceptor to receive these electrons. Cells that use molecular oxygen (O2) as their final electron acceptor are described as using aerobic respiration, while cells that use other soluble compounds as their final electron acceptor are described as using anaerobic respiration. However, the final electron acceptor of an exoelectrogen is found extracellularly and can be a strong oxidizing agent in aqueous solution or a solid conductor/electron acceptor. Two commonly observed acceptors are iron compounds (specifically Fe(III) oxides) and manganese compounds (specifically Mn(III/IV) oxides). As oxygen is a strong oxidizer, cells are able to do this strictly in the absence of oxygen.

A Bioelectrochemical reactor is a type of bioreactor where bioelectrochemical processes are used to degrade/produce organic materials using microorganisms. This bioreactor has two compartments: The anode, where the oxidation reaction takes place; And the cathode, where the reduction occurs. At these sites, electrons are passed to and from microbes to power reduction of protons, breakdown of organic waste, or other desired processes. They are used in microbial electrosynthesis, environmental remediation, and electrochemical energy conversion. Examples of bioelectrochemical reactors include microbial electrolysis cells, microbial fuel cells, enzymatic biofuel cells, electrolysis cells, microbial electrosynthesis cells, and biobatteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alkaline anion-exchange membrane fuel cell</span>

An alkaline anion-exchange membrane fuel cell (AAEMFC), also known as anion-exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs), alkaline membrane fuel cells (AMFCs), hydroxide-exchange membrane fuel cells (HEMFCs), or solid alkaline fuel cells (SAFCs) is a type of alkaline fuel cell that uses an anion-exchange membrane to separate the anode and cathode compartments.

Geopsychrobacter electrodiphilus is a species of bacteria, the type species of its genus. It is a psychrotolerant member of its family, capable of attaching to the anodes of sediment fuel cells and harvesting electricity by oxidation of organic compounds to carbon dioxide and transferring the electrons to the anode.

Biological photovoltaics, also called biophotovoltaics or BPV, is an energy-generating technology which uses oxygenic photoautotrophic organisms, or fractions thereof, to harvest light energy and produce electrical power. Biological photovoltaic devices are a type of biological electrochemical system, or microbial fuel cell, and are sometimes also called photo-microbial fuel cells or “living solar cells”. In a biological photovoltaic system, electrons generated by photolysis of water are transferred to an anode. A relatively high-potential reaction takes place at the cathode, and the resulting potential difference drives current through an external circuit to do useful work. It is hoped that using a living organism as the light harvesting material, will make biological photovoltaics a cost-effective alternative to synthetic light-energy-transduction technologies such as silicon-based photovoltaics.

A microbial desalination cell (MDC) is a biological electrochemical system that implements the use of electro-active bacteria to power desalination of water in situ, resourcing the natural anode and cathode gradient of the electro-active bacteria and thus creating an internal supercapacitor. Available water supply has become a worldwide endemic as only .3% of the Earth's water supply is usable for human consumption, while over 99% is sequestered by oceans, glaciers, brackish waters, and biomass. Current applications in electrocoagulation, such as microbial desalination cells, are able to desalinate and sterilize formerly unavailable water to render it suitable for safe water supply. Microbial desalination cells stem from microbial fuel cells, deviating by no longer requiring the use of a mediator and instead relying on the charged components of the internal sludge to power the desalination process. Microbial desalination cells therefore do not require additional bacteria to mediate the catabolism of the substrate during biofilm oxidation on the anodic side of the capacitor. MDCs and other bio-electrical systems are favored over reverse osmosis, nanofiltration and other desalination systems due to lower costs, energy and environmental impacts associated with bio-electrical systems.

Microbial electrochemical technologies (METs) use microorganisms as electrochemical catalyst, merging the microbial metabolism with electrochemical processes for the production of bioelectricity, biofuels, H2 and other valuable chemicals. Microbial fuel cells (MFC) and microbial electrolysis cells (MEC) are prominent examples of METs. While MFC is used to generate electricity from organic matter typically associated with wastewater treatment, MEC use electricity to drive chemical reactions such as the production of H2 or methane. Recently, microbial electrosynthesis cells (MES) have also emerged as a promising MET, where valuable chemicals can be produced in the cathode compartment. Other MET applications include microbial remediation cell, microbial desalination cell, microbial solar cell, microbial chemical cell, etc.,.

References

  1. ↑ Logan, Bruce E.; Hamelers, Bert; Rozendal, René; Schröder, Uwe; Keller, Jürg; Freguia, Stefano; Aelterman, Peter; Verstraete, Willy; Rabaey, Korneel (2006). "Microbial Fuel Cells: Methodology and Technology". Environmental Science & Technology. 40 (17): 5181–5192. doi:10.1021/es0605016. PMID   16999087.
  2. ↑ Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S; Giddey, Sarbjit S; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I; Hollenkamp, Anthony F (2014). "Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies". Frontiers in Chemistry. 2: 79. Bibcode:2014FrCh....2...79B. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2014.00079 . PMC   4174133 . PMID   25309898.
  3. ↑ Min, Booki; Cheng, Shaoan; Logan, Bruce E (2005). "Electricity generation using membrane and salt bridge microbial fuel cells". Water Research. 39 (9): 1675–86. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2005.02.002. PMID   15899266.
  4. ↑ "MFC Pilot plant at the Fosters Brewery". Archived from the original on 2013-04-15. Retrieved 2013-03-09.
  5. ↑ Potter, M. C. (1911). "Electrical Effects Accompanying the Decomposition of Organic Compounds". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 84 (571): 260–76. Bibcode:1911RSPSB..84..260P. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1911.0073 . JSTOR   80609.
  6. ↑ Cohen, B. (1931). "The Bacterial Culture as an Electrical Half-Cell". Journal of Bacteriology. 21: 18–19.
  7. ↑ DelDuca, M. G., Friscoe, J. M. and Zurilla, R. W. (1963). Developments in Industrial Microbiology. American Institute of Biological Sciences, 4, pp81–84.
  8. ↑ Karube, I.; Matasunga, T.; Suzuki, S.; Tsuru, S. (1976). "Continuous hydrogen production by immobilized whole cels of Clostridium butyricum". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 24 (2): 338–343. doi:10.1016/0304-4165(76)90376-7. PMID   9145.
  9. ↑ Karube, Isao; Matsunaga, Tadashi; Tsuru, Shinya; Suzuki, Shuichi (November 1977). "Biochemical cells utilizing immobilized cells of Clostridium butyricum". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 19 (11): 1727–1733. doi: 10.1002/bit.260191112 .
  10. ↑ "Brewing a sustainable energy solution". The University of Queensland Australia. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
  11. ↑ Allen, R.M.; Bennetto, H.P. (1993). "Microbial fuel cells: Electricity production from carbohydrates". Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 39–40: 27–40. doi:10.1007/bf02918975. S2CID   84142118.
  12. ↑ Pant, D.; Van Bogaert, G.; Diels, L.; Vanbroekhoven, K. (2010). "A review of the substrates used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for sustainable energy production". Bioresource Technology. 101 (6): 1533–43. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.10.017. PMID   19892549.
  13. ↑ Lu, Z.; Chang, D.; Ma, J.; Huang, G.; Cai, L.; Zhang, L. (2015). "Behavior of metal ions in bioelectrochemical systems: A review". Journal of Power Sources. 275: 243–260. Bibcode:2015JPS...275..243L. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.10.168.
  14. ↑ Oh, S.; Logan, B. E. (2005). "Hydrogen and electricity production from a food processing wastewater using fermentation and microbial fuel cell technologies". Water Research. 39 (19): 4673–4682. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2005.09.019. PMID   16289673.
  15. ↑ Philippon, Timothé; Tian, Jianghao; Bureau, Chrystelle; Chaumont, Cédric; Midoux, Cédric; Tournebize, Julien; Bouchez, Théodore; Barrière, Frédéric (2021-08-01). "Denitrifying bio-cathodes developed from constructed wetland sediments exhibit electroactive nitrate reducing biofilms dominated by the genera Azoarcus and Pontibacter". Bioelectrochemistry. 140: 107819. doi: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2021.107819 . ISSN   1567-5394. PMID   33894567. S2CID   233390050.
  16. ↑ Pous, Narcís; Koch, Christin; Colprim, Jesús; Puig, Sebastià; Harnisch, Falk (2014-12-01). "Extracellular electron transfer of biocathodes: Revealing the potentials for nitrate and nitrite reduction of denitrifying microbiomes dominated by Thiobacillus sp". Electrochemistry Communications. 49: 93–97. doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2014.10.011. hdl: 10256/10827 . ISSN   1388-2481.
  17. ↑ Subhas C Mukhopadhyay; Joe-Air Jiang (2013). "Application of Microbial Fuel Cells to Power Sensor Networks for Ecological Monitoring". Wireless Sensor Networks and Ecological Monitoring. Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation. Vol. 3. Springer link. pp. 151–178. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36365-8_6. ISBN   978-3-642-36365-8.
  18. ↑ Wang, Victor Bochuan; Chua, Song-Lin; Cai, Zhao; Sivakumar, Krishnakumar; Zhang, Qichun; Kjelleberg, Staffan; Cao, Bin; Loo, Say Chye Joachim; Yang, Liang (2014). "A stable synergistic microbial consortium for simultaneous azo dye removal and bioelectricity generation". Bioresource Technology. 155: 71–6. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.12.078. PMID   24434696.
  19. ↑ Wang, Victor Bochuan; Chua, Song-Lin; Cao, Bin; Seviour, Thomas; Nesatyy, Victor J; Marsili, Enrico; Kjelleberg, Staffan; Givskov, Michael; Tolker-Nielsen, Tim; Song, Hao; Loo, Joachim Say Chye; Yang, Liang (2013). "Engineering PQS Biosynthesis Pathway for Enhancement of Bioelectricity Production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Microbial Fuel Cells". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e63129. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...863129W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063129 . PMC   3659106 . PMID   23700414.
  20. ↑ "ZSL London Zoo trials world's first plant selfie". Zoological Society of London (ZSL).
  21. ↑ Venkata Mohan, S; Mohanakrishna, G; Srikanth, S; Sarma, P.N (2008). "Harnessing of bioelectricity in microbial fuel cell (MFC) employing aerated cathode through anaerobic treatment of chemical wastewater using selectively enriched hydrogen producing mixed consortia". Fuel. 87 (12): 2667–76. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2008.03.002.
  22. ↑ Venkata Mohan, S; Mohanakrishna, G; Reddy, B. Purushotham; Saravanan, R; Sarma, P.N (2008). "Bioelectricity generation from chemical wastewater treatment in mediatorless (anode) microbial fuel cell (MFC) using selectively enriched hydrogen producing mixed culture under acidophilic microenvironment". Biochemical Engineering Journal. 39: 121–30. doi:10.1016/j.bej.2007.08.023.
  23. ↑ Mohan, S. Venkata; Veer Raghavulu, S.; Srikanth, S.; Sarma, P. N. (25 June 2007). "Bioelectricity production by mediatorless microbial fuel cell under acidophilic condition using wastewater as substrate: Influence of substrate loading rate". Current Science. 92 (12): 1720–6. JSTOR   24107621.
  24. ↑ Venkata Mohan, S; Saravanan, R; Raghavulu, S. Veer; Mohanakrishna, G; Sarma, P.N (2008). "Bioelectricity production from wastewater treatment in dual chambered microbial fuel cell (MFC) using selectively enriched mixed microflora: Effect of catholyte". Bioresource Technology. 99 (3): 596–603. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2006.12.026. PMID   17321135.
  25. ↑ Venkata Mohan, S; Veer Raghavulu, S; Sarma, P.N (2008). "Biochemical evaluation of bioelectricity production process from anaerobic wastewater treatment in a single chambered microbial fuel cell (MFC) employing glass wool membrane". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 23 (9): 1326–32. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2007.11.016. PMID   18248978.
  26. ↑ Venkata Mohan, S; Veer Raghavulu, S; Sarma, P.N (2008). "Influence of anodic biofilm growth on bioelectricity production in single chambered mediatorless microbial fuel cell using mixed anaerobic consortia". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 24 (1): 41–7. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2008.03.010. PMID   18440217.
  27. ↑ Choi, Y.; Jung, S.; Kim, S. (2000). "Development of Microbial Fuel Cells Using Proteus Vulgaris Bulletin of the Korean Chemical Society". 21 (1): 44–8.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  28. ↑ Yue & Lowther, 1986
  29. ↑ Chen, T.; Barton, S.C.; Binyamin, G.; Gao, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Kim, H.-H.; Heller, A. (Sep 2001). "A miniature biofuel cell". J Am Chem Soc. 123 (35): 8630–1. doi:10.1021/ja0163164. PMID   11525685.
  30. ↑ Bullen RA, Arnot TC, Lakeman JB, Walsh FC (2006). "Biofuel cells and their development" (PDF). Biosensors & Bioelectronics. 21 (11): 2015–45. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2006.01.030. PMID   16569499.
  31. ↑ Eos magazine, Waterstof uit het riool, June 2008
  32. 1 2 MudWatt. "MudWatt Science Kit". MudWatt.
  33. ↑ "ISMET – The International Society for Microbial Electrochemistry and Technology". September 4, 2023.
  34. ↑ Kim, BH.; Chang, IS.; Gil, GC.; Park, HS.; Kim, HJ. (April 2003). "Novel BOD (biological oxygen demand) sensor using mediator-less microbial fuel cell". Biotechnology Letters. 25 (7): 541–545. doi:10.1023/A:1022891231369. PMID   12882142. S2CID   5980362.
  35. ↑ Chang, In Seop; Moon, Hyunsoo; Jang, Jae Kyung; Kim, Byung Hong (2005). "Improvement of a microbial fuel cell performance as a BOD sensor using respiratory inhibitors". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 20 (9): 1856–9. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2004.06.003. PMID   15681205.
  36. ↑ Gong, Y., Radachowsky, S. E., Wolf, M., Nielsen, M. E., Girguis, P. R., & Reimers, C. E. (2011). "Benthic Microbial Fuel Cell as Direct Power Source for an Acoustic Modem and Seawater Oxygen/Temperature Sensor System". Environmental Science and Technology. 45 (11): 5047–53. Bibcode:2011EnST...45.5047G. doi:10.1021/es104383q. PMID   21545151.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ↑ Biffinger, J.C., Little, B., Pietron, J., Ray, R., Ringeisen, B.R. (2008). "Aerobic Miniature Microbial Fuel Cells". NRL Review: 141–42.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ Pasternak, Grzegorz; Greenman, John; Ieropoulos, Ioannis (2017-06-01). "Self-powered, autonomous Biological Oxygen Demand biosensor for online water quality monitoring". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 244: 815–822. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2017.01.019. ISSN   0925-4005. PMC   5362149 . PMID   28579695.
  39. ↑ Heijne, Annemiek Ter; Liu, Fei; Weijden, Renata van der; Weijma, Jan; Buisman, Cees J.N; Hamelers, Hubertus V.M (2010). "Copper Recovery Combined with Electricity Production in a Microbial Fuel Cell". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (11): 4376–81. Bibcode:2010EnST...44.4376H. doi:10.1021/es100526g. PMID   20462261.
  40. ↑ Heidrich, E. S; Dolfing, J; Scott, K; Edwards, S. R; Jones, C; Curtis, T. P (2012). "Production of hydrogen from domestic wastewater in a pilot-scale microbial electrolysis cell". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 97 (15): 6979–89. doi:10.1007/s00253-012-4456-7. PMID   23053105. S2CID   15306503.
  41. ↑ Zhang, Fei, He, Zhen, Ge, Zheng (2013). "Using Microbial Fuel Cells to Treat Raw Sludge and Primary Effluent for Bioelectricity Generation". Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics; University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ↑ Delaney, G. M.; Bennetto, H. P.; Mason, J. R.; Roller, S. D.; Stirling, J. L.; Thurston, C. F. (2008). "Electron-transfer coupling in microbial fuel cells. 2. Performance of fuel cells containing selected microorganism-mediator-substrate combinations". Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology. Biotechnology. 34: 13–27. doi:10.1002/jctb.280340104.
  43. ↑ Lithgow, A.M., Romero, L., Sanchez, I.C., Souto, F.A., and Vega, C.A. (1986). Interception of electron-transport chain in bacteria with hydrophilic redox mediators. J. Chem. Research, (S):178–179.
  44. ↑ Kim, B.H.; Kim, H.J.; Hyun, M.S.; Park, D.H. (1999a). "Direct electrode reaction of Fe (III) reducing bacterium, Shewanella putrefacience" (PDF). J Microbiol Biotechnol. 9: 127–131. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-09-08.
  45. ↑ Pham, C. A.; Jung, S. J.; Phung, N. T.; Lee, J.; Chang, I. S.; Kim, B. H.; Yi, H.; Chun, J. (2003). "A novel electrochemically active and Fe(III)-reducing bacterium phylogenetically related to Aeromonas hydrophila, isolated from a microbial fuel cell". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 223 (1): 129–134. doi: 10.1016/S0378-1097(03)00354-9 . PMID   12799011.
  46. ↑ "Rasierapparate • plantpower.eu • 2021". plantpower.eu. Archived from the original on March 10, 2011.
  47. ↑ "Environmental Technology". Wageningen UR. 2012-06-06.
  48. ↑ Strik, David P. B. T. B; Hamelers (Bert), H. V. M; Snel, Jan F. H; Buisman, Cees J. N (2008). "Green electricity production with living plants and bacteria in a fuel cell". International Journal of Energy Research . 32 (9): 870–6. doi:10.1002/er.1397. S2CID   96849691.
  49. ↑ "Advanced Water Management Centre". Advanced Water Management Centre.
  50. ↑ "DailyTech – Microbial Hydrogen Production Threatens Extinction for the Ethanol Dinosaur".
  51. ↑ Nevin Kelly P.; Woodard Trevor L.; Franks Ashley E.; et al. (May–June 2010). "Microbial Electrosynthesis: Feeding Microbes Electricity To Convert Carbon Dioxide and Water to Multicarbon Extracellular Organic Compounds". mBio. 1 (2): e00103–10. doi:10.1128/mBio.00103-10. PMC   2921159 . PMID   20714445.
  52. ↑ Xu, Bojun; Ge, Zheng; He, Zhen (2015). "Sediment microbial fuel cells for wastewater treatment: Challenges and opportunities". Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology. 1 (3): 279–84. doi: 10.1039/C5EW00020C . hdl: 10919/64969 .
  53. ↑ Clark, Helen (March 2, 2015). "Cleaning up wastewater from oil and gas operations using a microbe-powered battery". Gizmag.
  54. ↑ Borras, Eduard. "New Technologies for Microbial Desalination Ready for Market Entry". Leitat's Projects Blog. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  55. ↑ Elizabeth, Elmy (2012). "GENERATING ELECTRICITY BY "NATURE'S WAY"". SALT 'B' Online Magazine. 1. Archived from the original on 2013-01-18.
  56. ↑ Strik, David P.B.T.B; Timmers, Ruud A; Helder, Marjolein; Steinbusch, Kirsten J.J; Hamelers, Hubertus V.M; Buisman, Cees J.N (2011). "Microbial solar cells: Applying photosynthetic and electrochemically active organisms". Trends in Biotechnology. 29 (1): 41–9. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.10.001. PMID   21067833.
  57. ↑ Bombelli, Paolo; Bradley, Robert W; Scott, Amanda M; Philips, Alexander J; McCormick, Alistair J; Cruz, Sonia M; Anderson, Alexander; Yunus, Kamran; Bendall, Derek S; Cameron, Petra J; Davies, Julia M; Smith, Alison G; Howe, Christopher J; Fisher, Adrian C (2011). "Quantitative analysis of the factors limiting solar power transduction by Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in biological photovoltaic devices". Energy & Environmental Science. 4 (11): 4690–8. doi:10.1039/c1ee02531g.
  58. ↑ "Miniature Microbial Fuel Cells". Technology Transfer Office. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
  59. ↑ Biffinger, Justin C.; Ray, Ricky; Little, Brenda; Ringeisen, Bradley R. (2007). "Diversifying Biological Fuel Cell Design by Use of Nanoporous Filters". Environmental Science and Technology. 41 (4): 1444–49. Bibcode:2007EnST...41.1444B. doi:10.1021/es061634u. PMID   17593755.
  60. ↑ Shabeeba, Anthru (5 Jan 2016). "Seminar 2". Slide Share.
  61. 1 2 Pasternak, Grzegorz; Greenman, John; Ieropoulos, Ioannis (2016). "Comprehensive Study on Ceramic Membranes for Low-Cost Microbial Fuel Cells". ChemSusChem. 9 (1): 88–96. doi:10.1002/cssc.201501320. PMC   4744959 . PMID   26692569.
  62. ↑ Behera, Manaswini; Jana, Partha S; Ghangrekar, M.M (2010). "Performance evaluation of low cost microbial fuel cell fabricated using earthen pot with biotic and abiotic cathode". Bioresource Technology. 101 (4): 1183–9. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.089. PMID   19800223.
  63. ↑ Winfield, Jonathan; Greenman, John; Huson, David; Ieropoulos, Ioannis (2013). "Comparing terracotta and earthenware for multiple functionalities in microbial fuel cells". Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 36 (12): 1913–21. doi:10.1007/s00449-013-0967-6. PMID   23728836. S2CID   206992845.
  64. ↑ Bennetto, H. P. (1990). "Electricity Generation by Micro-organisms" (PDF). Biotechnology Education. 1 (4): 163–168.
  65. ↑ Aiyer, Kartik S. (2020-01-18). "How does electron transfer occur in microbial fuel cells?". World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology. 36 (2): 19. doi:10.1007/s11274-020-2801-z. ISSN   1573-0972. PMID   31955250.
  66. ↑ Cheng, Ka Yu; Ho, Goen; Cord-Ruwisch, Ralf (2008). "Affinity of Microbial Fuel Cell Biofilm for the Anodic Potential". Environmental Science & Technology. 42 (10): 3828–34. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.3828C. doi:10.1021/es8003969. PMID   18546730.
  67. ↑ Bennetto, H. Peter; Stirling, John L; Tanaka, Kazuko; Vega, Carmen A (1983). "Anodic reactions in microbial fuel cells". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 25 (2): 559–68. doi:10.1002/bit.260250219. PMID   18548670. S2CID   33986929.
  68. ↑ Rashid, Naim; Cui, Yu-Feng; Saif Ur Rehman, Muhammad; Han, Jong-In (2013). "Enhanced electricity generation by using algae biomass and activated sludge in microbial fuel cell". Science of the Total Environment. 456–457: 91–4. Bibcode:2013ScTEn.456...91R. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.067. PMID   23584037.
  69. ↑ Bankefa, Olufemi Emmanuel; Oladeji, Seye Julius; Ayilara-Akande, Simbiat Olufunke; Lasisi, Modupe Mariam (June 2021). "Microbial redemption of "evil" days: a global appraisal to food security". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 58 (6): 2041–2053. doi:10.1007/s13197-020-04725-7. PMC   8076430 .
  70. ↑ Shabangu, Khaya; Bakare, Babatunde; Bwapwa, Joseph (1 November 2022). "Microbial Fuel Cells for Electrical Energy: Outlook on Scaling-Up and Application Possibilities towards South African Energy Grid". Sustainability. 14 (21): 14268. doi: 10.3390/su142114268 .
  71. ↑ Choi, Seokheun (July 2015). "Microscale microbial fuel cells: Advances and challenges". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 69: 8–25. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2015.02.021.
  72. ↑ He, Li; Du, Peng; Chen, Yizhong; Lu, Hongwei; Cheng, Xi; Chang, Bei; Wang, Zheng (May 2017). "Advances in microbial fuel cells for wastewater treatment". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 71: 388–403. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.069.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.