Hydrogen infrastructure

Last updated

Hydrogen pipelines Hydrogen pipelines.jpg
Hydrogen pipelines

A hydrogen infrastructure is the infrastructure of hydrogen pipeline transport, points of hydrogen production and hydrogen stations for distribution as well as the sale of hydrogen fuel, [1] and thus a crucial prerequisite before a successful commercialization of fuel cell technology. [2]

Contents

Hydrogen gasification plant for Belinka Perkemija [sl], 2015 Soteska Ljubljana Slovenia - factory.JPG
Hydrogen gasification plant for Belinka Perkemija  [ sl ], 2015

The hydrogen infrastructure would consist mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations. Hydrogen stations which were not situated near a hydrogen pipeline would get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.

Pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances compared to other options. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to hydrocrack fuels from crude oil. The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and existing natural gas pipelines for transport: also international co-operation and shipping. [3]

South Korea and Japan, [4] which as of 2019 lack international electrical interconnectors, are investing in the hydrogen economy. [5] In March 2020, the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field was opened in Japan, claiming to be the world's largest hydrogen production facility. [6] Much of the site is occupied by a solar array; power from the grid is also used for electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen fuel. [7]

Network

Hydrogen highways

A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped filling stations and other infrastructure along a road or highway which allow hydrogen vehicles to travel.

Hydrogen stations

Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Some firms as ITM Power are also providing solutions to make your own hydrogen (for use in the car) at home. [8] Government supported activities to expand an hydrogen fuel infrastructure are ongoing in the US state of California, in some member states of the European Union (most notably in Germany [2] ) and in particular in Japan.

Hydrogen pipeline transport

Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of hydrogen production or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, pipeline transport costs are similar to CNG, [9] the technology is proven, [10] however most hydrogen is produced on the place of demand with every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) an industrial production facility. [11] As of 2004, there are 900 miles (1,448 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and 930 miles (1,497 km) in Europe.

According to a 2024 research report, the United States has 1,600 miles (2,570 kilometers) of hydrogen pipelines; the global total stands at 2,800 miles (4,500 kilometers). [12] The World Economic Forum, in December 2023, estimated that Europe had approximately 1,600 kilometers of hydrogen pipelines. [13]

Hydrogen embrittlement (a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogen embrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas, however, is molecular (H2), and there is a very significant energy barrier to splitting it into atoms. [14]

Buffer for renewable energy

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory believes that US counties have the potential to produce more renewable hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles than the gasoline they consumed in 2002. [15]

As an energy buffer, hydrogen produced via water electrolysis and in combination with underground hydrogen storage or other large-scale storage technologies, could play an important role for the introduction of fluctuating renewable energy sources like wind or solar power. [2]

Hydrogen production plants

98% of hydrogen production uses the steam reforming method. [16] Methods such as electrolysis of water are also used. [17] The world's largest facility for producing electrolytic hydrogen fuel is claimed [18] to be the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R), a 10MW-class hydrogen production unit, inaugurated on 7 March 2020, in Namie, Fukushima Prefecture. [19] The site occupies 180,000 square meters of land, much of which is occupied by a solar array; but power from the grid is also used to conduct electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen fuel. [18]

Hydrogen pipeline transport

Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure.

History

Economics

Hydrogen pipeline size 1000 PSI.jpg

Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand. Although hydrogen pipeline transport is technologically mature, [24] [25] and the transport costs are similar to those of CNG, [26] most hydrogen is produced in the place of demand, with an industrial production facility every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) [27]

Piping

For process metal piping at pressures up to 7,000 psi (48 MPa), high-purity stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80 HRB is preferred. [28] This is because higher hardnesses are associated with lower fracture toughness so stronger, higher hardness steel is less safe.

Composite pipes are assessed like:

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer pipelines (or FRP pipeline) and reinforced thermoplastic pipes are researched. [29] [30] [31] [32]

Carrying hydrogen in steel pipelines (grades: API5L-X42 and X52; up to 1,000psi/7,000kPa, constant pressure/low pressure cycling) does not lead to hydrogen embrittlement. [33] Hydrogen is typically stored in steel cylinders without problems. Coal gas (also known as town gas) is 50% hydrogen and was carried in cast-iron pipes for half a century without any embrittlement issues.

Infrastructure

Hydrogen pipeline size 3600 PSI.jpg

Hydrogen highway

A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped public filling stations, along a road or highway, that allows hydrogen powered cars to travel. [34] William Clay Ford Jr. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors (also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes) that hold back the marketability of fuel cell cars.

Supply issues, cost and pollution

Hydrogen fueling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by tanker truck from hydrogen suppliers. [35] An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fueling stations. [36] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build. [37]

As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide. [16] The bulk of hydrogen is also transported in trucks, so pollution is emitted in its transportation. [35]

Hydrogen station

Hydrogen fueling pump Hydrogen station pump.jpg
Hydrogen fueling pump

A hydrogen station is a storage or filling station for hydrogen fuel. [38] The hydrogen is dispensed by weight. [39] [40] There are two filling pressures in common use: H70 or 700 bar, and the older standard H35 or 350 bar. [41] As of 2021, around 550 filling stations were available worldwide. [41] According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), as of the end of 2023, there were 921 hydrogen refueling stations globally, [42] although this number clearly conflicts with those published by AFDC. [43] The distribution of these stations is highly uneven, with a concentration in East Asia, particularly in China, Japan and South Korea; Central Europe and California in the United States. Other regions have very few, if any, hydrogen refuelling stations. [42] [43]

Delivery methods

Hydrogen fueling stations can be divided into off-site stations, where hydrogen is delivered by truck or pipeline, and on-site stations that produce and compress hydrogen for the vehicles. [44] [45]

Types of recharging stations

Home hydrogen fueling station

Home hydrogen fueling stations are available to consumers. [46] A model that can produce 12 kilograms of hydrogen per day sells for $325,000. [47]

Solar powered water electrolysing hydrogen home stations are composed of solar cells, power converter, water purifier, electrolyzer, piping, hydrogen purifier, [48] oxygen purifier, compressor, [49] pressure vessels [50] and a hydrogen outlet. [51]

Disadvantages

Volatility

Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of its low ignition energy, high combustion energy, and because it easily leaks from tanks. [52] Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported. [53]

Supply

Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations due to an interruption of the supply of hydrogen. [54]

Costs

There are far fewer Hydrogen filling stations than gasoline fuel stations, which in the US alone numbered 168,000 in 2004. [55] Replacing the US gasoline infrastructure with hydrogen fuel infrastructure is estimated to cost a half trillion U.S. dollars. [56] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build. [57] In comparison, battery electric vehicles can charge at home or at public chargers. As of 2023, there are more than 60,000 public charging stations in the United States, with more than 160,000 outlets. [43] A public Level 2 charger, which comprise the majority of public chargers in the US, costs about $2,000, and DC fast chargers, of which there are more than 30,000 in the U.S., [43] generally cost between $100,000 and $250,000, [58] although Tesla superchargers are estimated to cost approximately $43,000. [59]

Freezing of the nozzle

During refueling, the flow of cold hydrogen can cause frost to form on the dispenser nozzle, sometimes leading to the nozzle becoming frozen to the vehicle being refueled. [60]

Locations

Consulting firm Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik tracks global hydrogen filling stations and publishes a map. [61]

Asia

In 2019, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation. [62]

Hydrogen station in Ariake, Tokyo Hydrogen recharging station, by Iwatani in Ariake 2.jpg
Hydrogen station in Ariake, Tokyo

As of May 2023, there are 167 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in Japan. [63] [64] In 2012 there were 17 hydrogen stations, [65] and in 2021, there were 137 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Japan. [41]

By the end of 2023, China had built 354 hydrogen refueling stations. [66]

In 2019, there were 33 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in South Korea. [62] [67] In November 2023, however, due to hydrogen supply problems and broken stations, most fueling stations in South Korea offered no hydrogen. [68] 41 out of the 159 hydrogen stations in the country were listed as open, and some of these were rationing supplies of hydrogen. [69]

Europe

In 2019, there were 177 stations in Europe. [62] [70] [71] According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), there were 265 hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe by the end of 2023. [42]

As of June 2023, there were 105 hydrogen fuel stations in Germany, [42] As of June 2023, there were 5 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in France, [70] 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Iceland, [70] one publicly available hydrogen fuel station in Italy, [70] 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in The Netherlands, [70] 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Belgium, [70] 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden, [70] 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Switzerland [70] and 6 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Denmark. [70] Everfuel, the only operator of hydrogen stations in Denmark, announced in 2023 the closure of all of its public hydrogen stations in the country. [72] [73]

As of June 2021, there were 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Norway, both in the Oslo area. [74] Since the explosion at the hydrogen filling station in Sandvika in June 2019, the sale of hydrogen cars in Norway has halted. [75] In 2023, Everfuel announced the closure of its two public hydrogen stations in Norway and cancelled the opening of a third. [72] In 2024 Shell discontinued its hydrogen fuel projects in Norway. [76]

As of June 2020, there were 11 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in the United Kingdom, [70] but as of 2023, the number decreased to 5. [77] In 2022, Shell closed its three hydrogen stations in the UK, [78]

North America

Canada

As of July 2023, there were 10 fueling stations in Canada, 9 of which were open to the public:

  • British Columbia: Five stations are in the Greater Vancouver Area and Vancouver Island, with one station in Kelowna. All six stations are operated by HTEC (co-branded with Shell and Esso). [79]
  • Ontario: One station in Mississauga is operated by Hydrogenics Corporation. The station is only available to certain commercial customers. [80]
  • Quebec: Three stations in the Greater Montreal area are operated by Shell, and one station in Quebec City is operated by Harnois Énergies (co-branded with Esso). [80]
United States

As of July 2024, there were 54 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 53 of which were located in California, with one in Hawaii. [43]

  • California: As of March 2024, there were 53 retail stations. [43] Continued state funding for hydrogen refueling stations is uncertain. [81] In September 2023, Shell announced that it had closed its hydrogen stations in the state and discontinued plans to build further stations. [82] In 2024 it was reported that "a majority of the hydrogen stations in Southern California are offline or operating with reduced hours" due to hydrogen shortages and unreliable station performance. [83]
  • Hawaii opened its first hydrogen station at Hickam in 2009. [84] [85] In 2012, the Aloha Motor Company opened a hydrogen station in Honolulu. [86] As of April 2023, however, only one publicly accessible station was in operation in Hawaii. [43]
  • Michigan: In 2000, the Ford Motor Company and Air Products & Chemicals opened the first hydrogen station in North America in Dearborn, MI. [87] As of November 2023, no publicly accessible stations were in operation in Michigan. [43]

Oceania

In 2021, the first Australian publicly available hydrogen fuel station opened in Canberra, operated by ActewAGL. [88]

Hydrogen tank

A hydrogen tank on a Honda FCX platform Honda FCX platform rear Honda Collection Hall.jpg
A hydrogen tank on a Honda FCX platform

A hydrogen tank (other names- cartridge or canister) is used for hydrogen storage. [89] [90] [91] The first type IV hydrogen tanks for compressed hydrogen at 700 bars (70 MPa; 10,000 psi) were demonstrated in 2001, the first fuel cell vehicles on the road with type IV tanks are the Toyota FCHV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell and the GM HydroGen4.

Low-pressure tanks

Various applications have allowed the development of different H2 storage scenarios. Recently, the Hy-Can [92] consortium has introduced a small one liter, 10 bars (1.0 MPa; 150 psi) format. Horizon Fuel Cells is now selling a refillable 3 megapascals (30 bar; 440 psi) metal hydride form factor for consumer use called HydroStik. [93]

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Hydrogen tanks for the Toyota Mirai. Hydrogen tanks for Toyota Mirai.png
Hydrogen tanks for the Toyota Mirai.

Type V

Tank testing and safety considerations

In accordance with ISO/TS 15869 (revised):

This specification was replaced by ISO 13985:2006 and only applies to liquid hydrogen tanks.

Actual Standard EC 79/2009

Metal hydride storage tank

Magnesium hydride

Using magnesium [100] for hydrogen storage, a safe but weighty reversible storage technology. Typically the pressure requirement are limited to 10 bars (1.0 MPa; 150 psi). The charging process generates heat whereas the discharge process will require some heat to release the H2 contained in the storage material. To activate these types of hydrides, at the current state of development you need to reach approximately 300 °C (572 °F). [101] [102] [103]

Other hydrides

See also sodium aluminium hydride

Research

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell</span> Device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compressed-air car</span> Vehicle that uses a motor powered by stored compressed air.

A compressed-air car is a compressed-air vehicle powered by pressure vessels filled with compressed air. It is propelled by the release and expansion of the air within a motor adapted to compressed air. The car might be powered solely by air, or combined with other fuels such as gasoline, diesel, or an electric plant with regenerative braking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogen vehicle</span> Vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen to move. Hydrogen vehicles include some road vehicles, rail vehicles, space rockets, forklifts, ships and aircraft. Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy, either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or, less commonly, by hydrogen internal combustion.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fuel gas mainly composed of methane (CH4), compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 20–25 megapascals (2,900–3,600 psi; 200–250 atm), usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogen economy</span> Using hydrogen to decarbonize more sectors

The hydrogen economy is an umbrella term for the roles hydrogen can play alongside low-carbon electricity to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The aim is to reduce emissions where cheaper and more energy-efficient clean solutions are not available. In this context, hydrogen economy encompasses the production of hydrogen and the use of hydrogen in ways that contribute to phasing-out fossil fuels and limiting climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural gas vehicle</span> Vehicle powered by natural gas

A natural gas vehicle (NGV) utilizes compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) as an alternative fuel source. Distinguished from autogas vehicles fueled by liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), NGVs rely on methane combustion, resulting in cleaner emissions due to the removal of contaminants from the natural gas source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell vehicle</span> Vehicle that uses a fuel cell to power its electric motor

A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is an electric vehicle that uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small battery or supercapacitor, to power its onboard electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles generate electricity generally using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas. Transporting and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants. Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in indoor applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in space applications. Fuel cells are being developed and tested in trucks, buses, boats, ships, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methanol economy</span> Economic theory

The methanol economy is a suggested future economy in which methanol and dimethyl ether replace fossil fuels as a means of energy storage, ground transportation fuel, and raw material for synthetic hydrocarbons and their products. It offers an alternative to the proposed hydrogen economy or ethanol economy, although these concepts are not exclusive. Methanol can be produced from a variety of sources including fossil fuels as well as agricultural products and municipal waste, wood and varied biomass. It can also be made from chemical recycling of carbon dioxide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogen storage</span> Methods of storing hydrogen for later use

Several methods exist for storing hydrogen. These include mechanical approaches such as using high pressures and low temperatures, or employing chemical compounds that release H2 upon demand. While large amounts of hydrogen are produced by various industries, it is mostly consumed at the site of production, notably for the synthesis of ammonia. For many years hydrogen has been stored as compressed gas or cryogenic liquid, and transported as such in cylinders, tubes, and cryogenic tanks for use in industry or as propellant in space programs. The overarching challenge is the very low boiling point of H2: it boils around 20.268 K (−252.882 °C or −423.188 °F). Achieving such low temperatures requires expending significant energy.

Hydrogen technologies are technologies that relate to the production and use of hydrogen as a part hydrogen economy. Hydrogen technologies are applicable for many uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nickel–hydrogen battery</span> Type of rechargeable battery

A nickel–hydrogen battery (NiH2 or Ni–H2) is a rechargeable electrochemical power source based on nickel and hydrogen. It differs from a nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) battery by the use of hydrogen in gaseous form, stored in a pressurized cell at up to 1200 psi (82.7 bar) pressure. The nickel–hydrogen battery was patented in the United States on February 25, 1971 by Alexandr Ilich Kloss, Vyacheslav Mikhailovic Sergeev and Boris Ioselevich Tsenter from the Soviet Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compressed-hydrogen tube trailer</span> Semi-trailers that consist of clusters of high-pressure hydrogen storage tubes

Hydrogen tube trailers are semi-trailers that consist of 4 to 36 cluster high-pressure hydrogen tanks varying in length from 20 feet (6.10 m) for small tubes to 53 feet (16.15 m) on jumbo tube trailers. They are part of the hydrogen highway and usually precede a local hydrogen station.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuel cell bus</span> Hydrogen powered bus

A fuel cell bus is a bus that uses a hydrogen fuel cell as its power source for electrically driven wheels, sometimes augmented in a hybrid fashion with batteries or a supercapacitor. The only emission from the bus is water. Several cities around the world have trialled and tested fuel cell buses, with over 5,600 buses in use worldwide, the majority of which are in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrogen safety</span> Procedures for safe production, handling and use of hydrogen

Hydrogen safety covers the safe production, handling and use of hydrogen, particularly hydrogen gas fuel and liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen possesses the NFPA 704's highest rating of four on the flammability scale because it is flammable when mixed even in small amounts with ordinary air. Ignition can occur at a volumetric ratio of hydrogen to air as low as 4% due to the oxygen in the air and the simplicity and chemical properties of the reaction. However, hydrogen has no rating for innate hazard for reactivity or toxicity. The storage and use of hydrogen poses unique challenges due to its ease of leaking as a gaseous fuel, low-energy ignition, wide range of combustible fuel-air mixtures, buoyancy, and its ability to embrittle metals that must be accounted for to ensure safe operation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-pressure electrolysis</span>

High-pressure electrolysis (HPE) is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of water (H2O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2) due to the passing of an electric current through the water. The difference with a standard proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer is the compressed hydrogen output around 12–20 megapascals (120–200 bar) at 70 °C. By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal differential pressure compression is around 3%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compressed hydrogen</span> Gaseous state of the element hydrogen kept under pressure

Compressed hydrogen (CH2, CGH2 or CGH2) is the gaseous state of the element hydrogen kept under pressure. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for mobile hydrogen storage in hydrogen vehicles. It is used as a fuel gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ITM Power</span>

ITM Power plc is an energy storage and clean fuel company founded in the UK in 2001. It designs, manufactures, and integrates electrolysers based on proton exchange membrane (PEM) technology to produce green hydrogen using renewable electricity and tap water. Hydrogen produced via electrolysis is used for mobility, Power-to-X, and industry.

Power-to-gas is a technology that uses electric power to produce a gaseous fuel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nel ASA</span>

Nel ASA is a Norwegian company founded in 1927 and based in Oslo. Nel is a global company providing solutions for the production, storage and distribution of hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Nel is listed in the OBX Index of the Oslo Stock Exchange. As of March 2020, the largest shareholder is Clearstream Banking S.A. with a stake of 44.81%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NamX HUV</span> Motor vehicle

The NamX HUV is a hydrogen-powered coupe SUV from the Afro-European startup company NamX. It was designed by French designer Thomas de Lussac, and Italian car design firm Pininfarina.

References

  1. ↑ "Hydrogen infrastructure project launches in USA". 14 May 2013.
  2. 1 2 3 Eberle, Ulrich; Mueller, Bernd; von Helmolt, Rittmar. "Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012". Energy & Environmental Science . Retrieved 23 December 2014.
  3. ↑ IEA H2 2019 , p. 15
  4. ↑ "Japan's Hydrogen Strategy and Its Economic and Geopolitical Implications". Etudes de l'Ifri. Archived from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  5. ↑ "South Korea's Hydrogen Economy Ambitions". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  6. ↑ "The world's largest-class hydrogen production, Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) now is completed at Namie town in Fukushima". Toshiba Energy Press Releases. Toshiba Energy Systems and Solutions Corporations. 7 March 2020. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  7. ↑ Patel, Sonal (1 July 2022). "Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field Demonstrates Hydrogen Integration". POWER Magazine. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
  8. ↑ Running on home-brewed hydrogen
  9. ↑ Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ↑ DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop
  11. ↑ Every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) Archived 20 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  12. 1 2 "Critical Review of ASME B31.12 for Pipeline Transmission of Hydrogen". EPRI. 30 April 2024. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  13. 1 2 "Energy Transition Hydrogen pipelines are making progress around the world. These countries are leading the way". World Economic Forum. 13 December 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  14. ↑ Bhadhesia, Harry. "Prevention of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Steels" (PDF). Phase Transformations & Complex Properties Research Group, Cambridge University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  15. ↑ Milibrand, A. and Mann, M. “Potential for Hydrogen Production from Key Renewable Resources in the United States”. “National Renewable Energy Laboratory”, February 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
  16. 1 2 "Realising the hydrogen economy" Archived 5 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine , Power Technology, October 11, 2019
  17. ↑ Dincer, Ibrahim; Acar, Canan (2015). "Review and evaluation of hydrogen production methods for better sustainability". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 40 (34): 11096. Bibcode:2015IJHE...4011094D. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.12.035. ISSN   0360-3199.
  18. 1 2 "The world´s largest-class hydrogen production, Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) now is completed at Namie town in Fukushima". Toshiba Energy Press Releases. Toshiba Energy Systems and Solutions Corporations. 7 March 2020. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  19. ↑ "Opening Ceremony of Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) Held with Prime Minister Abe and METI Minister Kajiyama". METI News Releases. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. 9 March 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  20. ↑ "The Technological Steps of Hydrogen Introduction - pag 24" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  21. ↑ "rise.org - Pipelines". Archived from the original on 28 July 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  22. ↑ 2006 - vector of clean energy - pag 15 Archived 2008-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ↑ Hydrogen Pipeline Extension Strengthens Gulf Coast Network Archived 2009-03-16 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ↑ 2005 DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ "Natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2024. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  26. ↑ 2006 - Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines Deliver Large-scale Stranded Renewable Energy at Competitive Cost - 16th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Lyon, 13–16 June 2006 Archived 2012-02-10 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ↑ Every 50 to 100 miles Archived 2007-08-20 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ↑ Idaho national Engineering Laboratory Recommendations for Piping for Gaseous Hydrogen Archived 2012-09-16 at Archive-It Accessed 2010-10-13
  29. ↑ "2007 - Fiber Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Pipelines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  30. ↑ "NEW, COMPOSITE POLYMERIC/METALLIC MATERIALS AND DESIGNS FOR HYDROGEN PIPELINES" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  31. ↑ "2006 FRP Hydrogen Pipelines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  32. ↑ "Lifetime Simulation Composite & Multilayer Pipelines". Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
  33. ↑ "Hydrogen Pipelines Working Group Workshop - Proceedings" (PDF). USA Dept of Energy. DoE. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  34. ↑ Al-Ahmed, Amir, Safdar Hossain, Bello Mukhtar et al. "Hydrogen highway: An overview", IEEE.org, December 2010
  35. 1 2 "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing" Archived 1 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Protium.aero, May 2, 2016
  36. ↑ Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019
  37. ↑ Kurtz, Jennifer; Sprik, Sam; Bradley, Thomas H. (2019). "Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 44 (23). National Renewable Energy Laboratory: 12010–12023. Bibcode:2019IJHE...4412010K. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027 . Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  38. ↑ Apostolou, D.; Xydis, G. (2019). "A literature review on hydrogen refuelling stations and infrastructure. Current status and future prospects" (PDF). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 113: 109292. Bibcode:2019RSERv.11309292A. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109292. S2CID   201240559.
  39. ↑ "LA gas station gets hydrogen fuel pump". NBC News . 27 June 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  40. ↑ "SAE International -- mobility engineering" . Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  41. 1 2 3 Can Samsun, Remzi; Antoni, Laurent; Rex, Michael; Stolten, Detlef (2021). "Deployment Status of Fuel Cells in Road Transport: 2021 Update" (PDF). International Energy Agency (IEA) Advanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme (AFC TCP). Forschungszentrum Jülich.
  42. 1 2 3 4 Chris Randall (2 January 2024). "Infrastructure 37 new H2 refuelling stations built in Europe in 2023". Electrive.com. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State, Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed July 4, 2024.
  44. ↑ "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing" Archived 1 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Protium.aero, May 2, 2016
  45. ↑ Another off-site concept, by Bioenergy Concept GmbH, which has not been commercialized, involves filling hydrogen in cartridges and transporting them to a filling station, where the empty cartridges are replaced with new ones. See "Bioenergy Concept GmbH - Your Expert for Bioenergy Projects". Bioenergy Concept GmbH. Retrieved 8 April 2022. and "Patent für Wasserstofftankstelle". It is hoped that this process would save about 33% of energy (Kwh/KgH2) used by conventional transportation. See "DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record" (PDF).
  46. ↑ Hydrogenics HomeFueler as a home hydrogen fueling station; Simple.fuel as a home hydrogen fueling station; Ivys Energy Solutions simple.fuel; and Home hydrogen fueling station term
  47. ↑ "SHFA Model 300", Millennium Reign Energy, accessed April 26, 2023
  48. ↑ "Hydrogen Purification" (PDF). Home Power. 67: 42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2006.
  49. ↑ "Diaphragm Compressors". Pressure Products Industries, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 September 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2007.
  50. ↑ See, for example, Lincoln Composites Tuffshell tanks Archived 2007-06-04 at the Wayback Machine , as recommended by Roy McAlister in the "Hydrogen Car and Multi Fuel Engine" DVD
  51. ↑ "Solar Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis" (PDF). Home Power. 39. February–March 1994. Retrieved 23 June 2007.
  52. ↑ Utgikar, Vivek P; Thiesen, Todd (2005). "Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles". Technology in Society. 27 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005.
  53. ↑ Dobson, Geoff (12 June 2019). "Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt". EV Talk.
  54. ↑ Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019
  55. ↑ "How many gas stations are there in the U.S?" . Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  56. ↑ Romm, Joseph (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate . New York: Island Press. ISBN   978-1-55963-703-9. Chapter 5
  57. ↑ Kurtz, Jennifer; Sprik, Sam; Bradley, Thomas H. (2019). "Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 44 (23). National Renewable Energy Laboratory: 12010–12023. Bibcode:2019IJHE...4412010K. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027 . S2CID   132085841 . Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  58. ↑ Hawkins, Andrew J. "Volvo and ChargePoint will build EV charging stations at Starbucks in 5 states", The Verge, March 15, 2022
  59. ↑ Lambert, Fred. "Tesla's Supercharger cost revealed to be just one-fifth of the competition in losing home state bid", Electrek, April 15, 2022
  60. ↑ "NREL Research into Fueling Big Rigs Could Help More Hydrogen Vehicles Hit the Road" . Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  61. ↑ "Hydrogen Filling Stations Worldwide - H2-Stations - netinform" . Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  62. 1 2 3 "In 2019: 83 New Hydrogen Refuelling Stations Worldwide". FuelCellsWorks. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  63. ↑ "2023年度水素ステーション整備計画を策定" [Formulation of a hydrogen station development plan for FY2023]. JHyM (in Japanese). 17 May 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  64. ↑ "5 new HRS to be installed in fiscal 2023" (PDF). JHyM. 17 May 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  65. ↑ "fuelcellinsider.org - Index". Archived from the original on 15 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  66. ↑ Polly Martin (21 March 2024). "'China is the world leader in hydrogen refuelling stations, but it is still way behind its 2025 targets': analyst". Hydrogeninsight. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  67. ↑ Phate Zhang (1 July 2021). "China has built 118 hydrogen refueling stations". CnEVPost.
  68. ↑ Barnard, Michael. "Hydrogen Refueling Station Closures in Multiple Countries More Painful News for Hydrogen Proponents", CleanTechnica, February 8, 2024
  69. ↑ Martin, Polly. "Three quarters of hydrogen refuelling stations in South Korea closed amid H2 supply crash", Hydrogen Insight, November 23, 2023
  70. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Filling up with H2". H2.Live - Hydrogen Stations in Germany & Europe. 10 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  71. ↑ "About - Hydrogen Mobility Europe". Hydrogen Mobility Europe. 19 November 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  72. 1 2 "Everfuel Decided to Restructure the Hydrogen Station Network Due to Current Immature Hydrogen Mobility Market and Technology, Closing Refuelling Stations", Hydrogen Central, September 15, 2023
  73. ↑ Martin, Polly. "Hydrogen vehicles in Denmark left without fuel as all commercial refuelling stations shuttered", Hydrogen Insight, 20 September 2023
  74. ↑ Tisheva, Plamena. "Everfuel sets out plan for hydrogen stations in southern Norway", RenewablesNow, March 22, 2021
  75. ↑ Kane, Mark. "Hydrogen Fueling Station Explodes: Toyota & Hyundai Halt Fuel Cell Car Sales", Inside EVs, June 11, 2019, accessed August 5, 2021
  76. ↑ Kimani, Alex. "Shell Abandons Norway’s Hydrogen Projects Due to Lack of Demand", Oil Price, September 23, 2024
  77. ↑ "First Shell, now Motive, hydrogen fuel station closures continue in the UK", Innovation Origins, 4 May 2023
  78. ↑ Collins, Leigh. "Shell has quietly closed down all its hydrogen filling stations in the UK", Hydrogen Insight, 17 October 2022
  79. ↑ "Station Status - HTEC". www.htec.ca. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  80. 1 2 Canada, Natural Resources (5 January 2018). "Electric Charging and Alternative Fuelling Stations Locator". www.nrcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  81. ↑ Begert, Blanca. "Is this the end of the hydrogen highway?", Politico, August 15, 2023
  82. ↑ Dokso, Anela. "Shell Abandons California Hydrogen Stations", Energy News, September 19, 2023; and Collins, Leigh. "Shell scraps plan to build 48 new hydrogen filling stations in California, for which it had been awarded $40.6m grant", Hydrogen Insight, 18 September 2023
  83. ↑ Hogan, Mack. "Shell Is Immediately Closing all of Its California Hydrogen Stations", Inside EVs, February 9, 2024
  84. ↑ Hawaii hydrogen power park
  85. ↑ First solar-powered hydrogen plant in AF complete on Hickam Archived 2013-02-19 at the Wayback Machine
  86. ↑ "Fuel Cell Scooters and Solar Hydrogen Refuelling Station Launched in Hawaii" . Retrieved 4 October 2016.
  87. ↑ Motavalli, Jim (2001). Breaking Gridlock: Moving Towards Transportation That Works . San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. p.  145. ISBN   978-1-57805-039-0.
  88. ↑ "Hydrogen refuelling station opens in Canberra". Australian Capital Territory Government (Press release). 26 March 2021. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
  89. ↑ International hydrogen fuel and pressure vessel forum 2010 Archived 2012-09-05 at the Wayback Machine
  90. ↑ R&D of large stationary hydrogen/CNG/HCNG storage vessels
  91. ↑ CNG & Hydrogen tank safety, R&D, and testing
  92. ↑ Hycan Archived 2011-12-06 at the Wayback Machine
  93. ↑ Horizon HydroStik
  94. ↑ Onboard storage of hydrogen-Page 2 Archived 2006-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
  95. ↑ "Onboard type IV vessels" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2007. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
  96. ↑ "The first commercial Type V composite pressure vessel". 31 March 2020.
  97. ↑ Modeling of dispersion following hydrogen permeation for safety engineering and risk assessment Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine
  98. ↑ U.S. DOE storage safety
  99. ↑ U.S. DOE best safety practices hydrogen properties
  100. ↑ CNRS Institut Neel H2 Storage
  101. ↑ Dornheim, M.; Doppiu, S.; Barkhordarian, G.; Boesenberg, U.; Klassen, T.; Gutfleisch, O.; Bormann, R. (2007). "Hydrogen storage in magnesium-based hydrides and hydride composites". Scripta Materialia. Viewpoint set no. 42 “Nanoscale materials for hydrogen storage”. 56 (10): 841–846. doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.01.003. ISSN   1359-6462.
  102. ↑ Schlapbach, Louis; Züttel, Andreas (15 November 2001). "Hydrogen-storage materials for mobile applications" (PDF). Nature. 414 (6861): 353–358. Bibcode:2001Natur.414..353S. doi:10.1038/35104634. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   11713542. S2CID   3025203.
  103. ↑ "Storage by Mc-Phy". Archived from the original on 3 December 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  104. ↑ Development of a Clay-Plastic Composite Material with Good Hydrogen Gas Barrier Property Archived 2008-08-21 at the Wayback Machine

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.