As pure hydrogen does not contain carbon, there are no carbon-based pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrocarbons (HC), nor is there any carbon dioxide (CO2) in the exhaust. As hydrogen combustion occurs in an atmosphere containing nitrogen and oxygen, however, it can produce oxides of nitrogen known as NOx. In this way, the combustion process is much like other high temperature combustion fuels, such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel or natural gas. Therefore, hydrogen combustion engines are not considered zero emission.[citation needed]
Tokyo City University have been developing hydrogen internal combustion engines since 1970.[6] They recently developed a hydrogen fueled bus[7] and truck.
Mazda has developed Wankel engines that burn hydrogen. The advantage of using ICE (internal combustion engine) such as Wankel and piston engines is that the cost of retooling for production is much lower. Existing-technology ICE can still be used to solve those problems where fuel cells are not a viable solution as yet, for example in cold-weather applications.
In 1990 an electric solar vehicle was converted to hydrogen using a 107 ml 4-stroke engine. It was used in a research project examining and measuring losses from the power conversions sun -> electricity -> electrolysis -> storage -> motor -> transmission -> wheels. Compared to its previous battery-electric mode, the range proved higher but the system efficiency lower and the available alkaline hydrogen generator too large to be carried on board. It was powered by a stationary solar installation and the produced hydrogen stored in pressure bottles.[8]
Between 2005 - 2007, BMW tested a luxury car named the BMW Hydrogen 7, powered by a hydrogen ICE, which achieved 301km/h (187mph) in tests.[citation needed] At least two of these concepts have been manufactured.[citation needed]
Alset GmbH developed a hybrid hydrogen systems that allows vehicle to use petrol and hydrogen fuels individually or at the same time with an internal combustion engine. This technology was used with Aston MartinRapide S during the 24 Hours Nürburgring race.[11] The Rapide S was the first vehicle to finish the race with hydrogen technology.[12]
Hydrogen internal combustion engine development has been receiving more interest recently, particularly for heavy duty commercial vehicles. Part of the motivation for this is as a bridging technology to meet future climate CO2 emission goals, and as technology more compatible with existing automotive knowledge and manufacturing.[citation needed]
In September 2022, Kawasaki unveiled a hydrogen combustion engine developed using the same injector as the hydrogen Corolla, based on the Ninja H2.[citation needed]
In May 2023, Yamaha, Honda, Kawasaki and Suzuki received approval from Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) to form a technological research association called HySE (Hydrogen Small mobility & Engine technology) for developing hydrogen-powered engines for small mobility.[13]
Records and motor sport
In the year 2000, a Shelby Cobra was converted to run on hydrogen in a project led by James W. Heffel (principal engineer at the time for the University of California, Riverside CE-CERT). The hydrogen conversion was done with the aim of making a vehicle capable of beating the current land speed record for hydrogen powered vehicles.[14][15][16] It achieved a respectable 108.16mph, missing the world record for hydrogen powered vehicles by 0.1mph.[17]
In May 2021, Toyota Corolla Sport, which is equipped with hydrogen engine entered the Super Taikyu Series race round 3 "NAPAC Fuji Super TEC 24 Hours", and completed the 24 hours race.[18] Toyota intends to apply its safety technologies and know-how that it has accumulated through the development of fuel cell vehicles and the commercialization of the Mirai.[19] In November 2021, five automotive manufacturers in Japan (Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Subaru, Toyota, Mazda and Yamaha Motor) jointly announced that they will take on the challenge of expanding fuel options through the use of internal combustion engines to achieve carbon neutrality, at the (three-hour) Super Taikyu race Round 6 held at Okayama International Circuit.[20] Their common view is that the enemy is not internal combustion engines, and we need diverse solutions toward challenging carbon neutrality.[21] At the event, Yamaha Motor unveiled 5.0-liter V8 Hydrogen engine which is based on Lexus 2UR engine.[22]
In June 2022, Toyota revealed the progress of its efforts in the Super Taikyu Series at the ENEOS Super Taikyu Series 2022. They say cruising range was improved by approximately 20%, power output was improved by approx. 20% and torque was improved by approx. 30%. Also, Hydrogen suppliers are added and its transporting became more efficient to support the race.[23] In July 2022, Isuzu, Denso, Toyota, Hino Motors, and Commercial Japan Partnership Technologies Corporation (CJPT) announced that they have started planning and foundational research on hydrogen engines for heavy-duty commercial vehicles with the aim of further utilizing internal combustion engines as one option to achieve carbon neutrality.[24]
In May 2023, Toyota Corolla Sport which is equipped with liquid hydrogen engine entered the Super Taikyu Series race round 2 "NNAPAC Fuji SUPER TEC 24 Hours Race", and completed the 24 hours race. It was the first time that a car running on liquid hydrogen has entered a race anywhere in the world.[27][28]
In June 2023, Toyota unveiled a hydrogen race car "GR H2 Racing Concept" built for 24 Hours of Le Mans.[29][30]
The thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto Cycle depends on the compression ratio and improves from 47% to 56% when this is raised from 8 to 15.[31] Engines in practical vehicles achieve 50-75% of this, with about 60% is suggested as an unlimited-cost limit.[32] However, a conference presentation by Oak Ridge claims that the theoretical efficiency limit is 100%, based on it being an open cycle engine and therefore not limited by Carnot efficiency. In comparison, the efficiency of a fuel cell is limited by the Gibbs free energy, which is typically higher than that of Carnot. The determination of a fuel cell's performance depends on the thermodynamic evaluation. Using hydrogen's lower heating value, the maximum fuel cell efficiency would be 94.5%.[33]
The efficiency of a hydrogen combustion engine can be similar to that of a traditional combustion engine. If well optimized, slightly higher efficiencies can be achieved. The comparison with a hydrogen fuel cell is interesting. The fuel cell has a high efficiency peak at low load, while at high load the efficiency drops. The hydrogen combustion engine has a peak at high load and can achieve similar efficiency levels as a hydrogen fuel cell.[34] From this, one can deduce that hydrogen combustion engines are a match in terms of efficiency for fuel cells for heavy duty applications.
Efficiency decreases for small internal combustion engines. A 67 ml 4-stroke engine converted to hydrogen and tested with a dynamometer at the best operating point (3000 rpm, 14 NLM (normal liters per minute), 2.5 times stoichiometric air/fuel ratio) achieved 520 W and 21% efficiency. In order to measure the vehicular efficiency an also converted similar 107 ml engine (Honda GX110 with best gasoline efficiency 26%) was installed in a lightweight vehicle and driven up known gradients while measuring speed and hydrogen flow. Calculations gave as results 3.5% to 5.9% average efficiencies and 7.5% peak efficiency. The consumption measured on a level road was 24 NLM/km at a speed of 25km/h and 31 NLM/km at 43km/h.[8]
However, air is a mixture of gases, and the most abundant gas in air is nitrogen. Therefore, the combustion of hydrogen in air produces oxides of nitrogen, known as NOx. In this respect, the combustion process is much like other high temperature combustion fuels, such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel or natural gas. This problem is exascerbated by the very high temperatures generated by the combustion of hydrogen.[35] As such hydrogen combustion engines are not considered zero emission.
At the end of 2021, almost 96% of the global hydrogen production was from natural gas (47%), coal (27%) and oil (22%) and only around 4% came from electrolysis.[36] Emissions from burning hydrogen can be negligible but emissions from producing hydrogen are currently higher than direct combustion of the source.[37]
Hydrogen has a wide flammability range (3–70% H2 in air) in comparison with other fuels.[35] As a result, it can be combusted in an internal combustion engine over a wide range of fuel-air mixtures. An advantage of this is the engine can be run using a lean fuel-air mixture. Such a mixture is one in which the amount of fuel is less than the theoretical, stoichiometric or chemically ideal amount needed for combustion with a given amount of air. Fuel economy is then greater and the combustion reaction is more complete. Also, the combustion temperature is usually lower, which reduces the amount of pollutants (e.g. nitrogen oxides) emitted.[38]
As with any internal combustion engine, small amounts of the engine oil needed for lubrication can enter the combustion chamber, and take part in the combustion process. The exhaust gases can therefore contain small amounts of the products of combustion of this oil. Typically very minute quantities of CO, CO2, SO2, HC and particulates can be found in the exhaust gases.[39][40] These are several orders of magnitude lower than what would be seen in the exhaust gases of a gasoline or diesel engine.
Tuning a hydrogen engine in 1976 to produce the greatest amount of emissions possible resulted in emissions comparable with consumer operated gasoline engines from that period. [citation needed][41] More modern engines however often come equipped with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Equation when ignoring EGR:
This technology potentially benefits hydrogen combustion also in terms of NOx emissions.[43]
Since hydrogen combustion is not zero emission but has zero CO2 emissions, it is attractive to consider hydrogen internal combustion engines as part of a hybrid powertrain. In this configuration, the vehicle is able to offer short-term zero emission capabilities such as operating in city zero emission zones.
Adaptation of existing engines
The differences between a hydrogen ICE and a traditional gasoline engine include hardened valves and valve seats, stronger connecting rods, non-platinum tipped spark plugs, a higher voltage ignition coil, fuel injectors designed for a gas instead of a liquid, larger crankshaft damper, stronger head gasket material, modified (for supercharger) intake manifold, positive pressure supercharger, and high temperature engine oil. All modifications would amount to about one point five times (1.5) the current cost of a gasoline engine.[44] These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do.
The theoretical maximum power output from a hydrogen engine depends on the air/fuel ratio and fuel injection method used. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for hydrogen is 34:1. At this air/fuel ratio, hydrogen will displace 29% of the combustion chamber leaving only 71% for the air. As a result, the energy content of this mixture will be less than it would be if the fuel were gasoline. Since both the carbureted and port injection methods mix the fuel and air prior to it entering the combustion chamber, these systems limit the maximum theoretical power obtainable to approximately 85% of that of gasoline engines. For direct injection systems, which mix the fuel with the air after the intake valve has closed (and thus the combustion chamber has 100% air), the maximum output of the engine can be approximately 15% higher than that for gasoline engines.
Therefore, depending on how the fuel is metered, the maximum output for a hydrogen engine can be either 15% higher or 15% less than that of gasoline if a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is used. However, at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the combustion temperature is very high and as a result it will form a large amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which is a criteria pollutant. Since one of the reasons for using hydrogen is low exhaust emissions, hydrogen engines are not normally designed to run at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
Typically hydrogen engines are designed to use about twice as much air as theoretically required for complete combustion. At this air/fuel ratio, the formation of NOx is reduced to near zero. Unfortunately, this also reduces the power output to about half that of a similarly sized gasoline engine. To make up for the power loss, hydrogen engines are usually larger than gasoline engines, and/or are equipped with turbochargers or superchargers.[45] A small amount of hydrogen can be burned outside the combustion chamber and reach into the air/fuel mixture in the chamber to ignite the main combustion.[46]
In the Netherlands, research organisation TNO has been working with industrial partners for the development of hydrogen internal combustion engines.[47]
In Australia, The engineers further insert fit diesel ICE into run hydrogen fuel for car and truck.[48][49]
See also
Bi-fuel vehicle: a possible solution to overcome the lack of H2 stations[50]
Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion does not always result in fire, because a flame is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While activation energy must be supplied to initiate combustion, the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining. The study of combustion is known as combustion science.
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy.
Liquid hydrogen (H2(l)) is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecular H2 form.
In internal combustion engines, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions reduction technique used in petrol/gasoline, diesel engines and some hydrogen engines. EGR works by recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. The exhaust gas displaces atmospheric air and reduces O2 in the combustion chamber. Reducing the amount of oxygen reduces the amount of fuel that can burn in the cylinder thereby reducing peak in-cylinder temperatures. The actual amount of recirculated exhaust gas varies with the engine operating parameters.
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen to move. Hydrogen vehicles include some road vehicles, rail vehicles, space rockets, forklifts, ships and aircraft. Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy, either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or, less commonly, by hydrogen internal combustion.
A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device which converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline or diesel, including lean-burn engines, and sometimes on kerosene heaters and stoves.
RP-1 (alternatively, Rocket Propellant-1 or Refined Petroleum-1) is a highly refined form of kerosene outwardly similar to jet fuel, used as rocket fuel. RP-1 provides a lower specific impulse than liquid hydrogen (H2), but is cheaper, is stable at room temperature, and presents a lower explosion hazard. RP-1 is far denser than H2, giving it a higher energy density (though its specific energy is lower). RP-1 also has a fraction of the toxicity and carcinogenic hazards of hydrazine, another room-temperature liquid fuel.
Alternative fuels, also known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are fuels derived from sources other than petroleum. Alternative fuels include gaseous fossil fuels like propane, natural gas, methane, and ammonia; biofuels like biodiesel, bioalcohol, and refuse-derived fuel; and other renewable fuels like hydrogen and electricity.
Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, fuel oil, biodiesel blends, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack, or propelling nozzle. It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume.
An oxygen sensor (or lambda sensor, where lambda refers to air–fuel equivalence ratio, usually denoted by λ) or probe or sond, is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen (O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed.
Diesel exhaust is the exhaust gas produced by a diesel engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the fuel type, rate of consumption or speed of engine operation, and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application.
Steam reforming or steam methane reforming (SMR) is a method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reaction of hydrocarbons with water. Commonly natural gas is the feedstock. The main purpose of this technology is hydrogen production. The reaction is represented by this equilibrium:
Lean-burn refers to the burning of fuel with an excess of air in an internal combustion engine. In lean-burn engines the air–fuel ratio may be as lean as 65:1. The air / fuel ratio needed to stoichiometrically combust gasoline, by contrast, is 14.64:1. The excess of air in a lean-burn engine emits far less hydrocarbons. High air–fuel ratios can also be used to reduce losses caused by other engine power management systems such as throttling losses.
Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer are compressed to the point of auto-ignition. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction produces heat that can be transformed into work in a heat engine.
Hydrogen fuel enhancement is the process of using a mixture of hydrogen and conventional hydrocarbon fuel in an internal combustion engine, typically in a car or truck, in an attempt to improve fuel economy, power output, emissions, or a combination thereof. Methods include hydrogen produced through an electrolysis, storing hydrogen on the vehicle as a second fuel, or reforming conventional fuel into hydrogen with a catalyst.
A NOx adsorber or NOx trap (also called Lean NOx trap, abbr. LNT) is a device that is used to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2) emissions from a lean burn internal combustion engine by means of adsorption.
Engine efficiency of thermal engines is the relationship between the total energy contained in the fuel, and the amount of energy used to perform useful work. There are two classifications of thermal engines-
Internal combustion and
External combustion engines.
An alternative fuel vehicle is a motor vehicle that runs on alternative fuel rather than traditional petroleum fuels. The term also refers to any technology powering an engine that does not solely involve petroleum. Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental and health concerns including climate change and air pollution, high oil-prices and the potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.
William C. Pfefferle was an American scientist and inventor.
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is typically applied to pistons, turbine blades, a rotor, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance. This process transforms chemical energy into kinetic energy which is used to propel, move or power whatever the engine is attached to.
↑ Khotseng, Lindiwe. "Fuel Cell Thermodynamics"(PDF). Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, SA. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
↑ L. M. DAS, EXHAUST EMISSION CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROGEN OPERATED ENGINE SYSTEM: NATURE OF POLLUTANTS AND THEIR CONTROL TECHNIQUES Int. J. Hydrogen Energy Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 765-775, 1991
↑ P.C.T. De Boera, W.J. McLeana and H.S. Homana (1976). "Performance and emissions of hydrogen fueled internal combustion engines". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 1 (2): 153–172. Bibcode:1976IJHE....1..153D. doi:10.1016/0360-3199(76)90068-9.
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