Face inversion effect

Last updated

The face inversion effect is a phenomenon where identifying inverted (upside-down) faces compared to upright faces is much more difficult than doing the same for non-facial objects. [1] [2]

Contents

A typical study examining the face inversion effect would have images of the inverted and upright object presented to participants and time how long it takes them to recognise that object as what it actually is (i.e. a picture of a face as a face). The face inversion effect occurs when, compared to other objects, it takes a disproportionately longer time to recognise faces when they are inverted as opposed to upright. [3] [4]

Faces are normally processed in the special face-selective regions of the brain, such as the fusiform face area. [5] However, processing inverted faces involves both face-selective regions and additional visual areas such as mid-level visual areas [6] and high-level scene-sensitive and object-sensitive regions of the parahippocampal place area and lateral occipital cortex. [7] [8] There seems to be something different about inverted faces that requires them to also involve these mid-level and high-level scene and object processing mechanisms. [9]

The most supported explanation for why faces take longer to recognise when they are inverted is the configural information hypothesis. The configural information hypothesis states that faces are processed with the use of configural information to form a holistic (whole) representation of a face. Objects, however, are not processed in this configural way. Instead, they are processed featurally (in parts). Inverting a face disrupts configural processing, forcing it to instead be processed featurally like other objects. This causes a delay since it takes longer to form a representation of a face with only local information. [10]

Neural systems of face recognition

Location of the Fusiform Face Area Fusiform Face Area.png
Location of the Fusiform Face Area

Faces are processed in separate areas of the brain to other stimuli, such as scenes or non-facial objects. For example, the fusiform face area (FFA) is a face-selective region in the brain that is only used for facial processing. [5] The FFA responds more to upright but not inverted faces, demonstrating that inverted faces are not detected the same way that upright faces are. [11]

The scene-selective parahippocampal place area (PPA) processes places, or scenes of the visual environment. [7] The object recognition area in the lateral occipital cortex (LOC) is involved in the processing of objects. [8] Together, these regions are used to process inverted, but not upright faces. This suggests that there is something special about inverted compared to upright faces that requires them to involve object and scene processing regions. [9]

There is still some activity in face recognition regions when viewing inverted faces. [12] Evidence has found that a face-selective region in the brain known as the occipital face area (OFA) is involved in the processing of both upright and inverted faces. [9] [11]

Overall, face and object processing mechanisms seem to be separate in the brain. Recognising upright faces involves special facial recognition regions, but recognising inverted faces involves both face and non-facial stimuli recognition regions.

Face vs. object recognition processes

Face recognition


Configural information

Configural information, also known as relational information, helps people to quickly recognise faces. It involves the arrangement of facial features, such as the eyes and nose. There are two types of configural information: first-order relational information and second-order relational information. [13]

First-order relational information consists of the spatial relationships between different features of the face. These relationships between facial features are common to most people, for example, having the mouth located under the nose. First-order relational information therefore helps to identify a face as a face and not some other object. [13]

Second-order relational information is the size of the relationships between the features of the face, relative to a prototype (a model of what a face should look like). This type of information helps to distinguish one face from another because it differs between different faces. [13]

Holistic processing

The holistic processing of faces describes the perception of faces as wholes, rather than the sum of their parts. This means that facial features (such as the eyes or nose) are not explicitly represented in the brain on their own, rather, the entire face is represented. [14]

According to the configural information hypothesis of face recognition, recognising faces involves two stages that use configural information to form holistic representations of faces. [15]

A study demonstrated that face-selective activity in the brain was delayed when the configural information of faces was disrupted (for example, when faces were inverted). [16] This means that it took longer for the participants to recognise the faces they were viewing as faces and not other (non-facial) objects. The configural information explanation for facial recognition is therefore supported by the presence of the face inversion effect (a delay when faces are inverted).

Stages of face recognition

The first stage of recognising faces in the configural information hypothesis is first-level information processing. This stage uses first-order relational information to detect a face (i.e. to determine that a face is actually a face and not another object). Building a holistic representation of a face occurs at this early stage of face processing, to allow faces to be detected quickly. [15]

The next stage, second-level information processing, distinguishes one face from another with the use of second-order relational information. [15]

Object recognition

Smaller inversion effects occur for non-facial objects, suggesting that faces and other objects are not processed in the same way.

Face recognition involves configural information to process faces holistically. However, object recognition does not use configural information to form a holistic representation. Instead, each part of the object is processed independently to allow it to be recognised. This is known as a featural recognition method. [13] Additionally, an explicit representation of each part of the object is made, rather than a representation of the object as a whole. [14]

Theories

Configural information hypothesis

According to the configural information hypothesis, the face inversion effect occurs because configural information can no longer be used to build a holistic representation of a face. Inverted faces are instead processed like objects, using local information (i.e. the individual features of the face) instead of configural information.

A delay is caused when processing inverted faces compared to upright faces. This is because the specific holistic mechanism (see holistic processing) that allows faces to be quickly detected is absent when processing inverted faces. Only local information is available when viewing inverted faces, disrupting this early recognition stage and therefore preventing faces from being detected as quickly. Instead, independent features are put together piece-by-piece to form a representation of the object (a face) and allow the viewer to recognise what it is. [10]

Alternate hypotheses

Although the configural processing hypothesis is a popular explanation for the face inversion effect, there have been some challenges to this theory. In particular, it has been suggested that faces and objects are both recognised using featural processing mechanisms, instead of holistic processing for faces and featural processing for objects. [17] The face inversion effect is therefore not caused by delay from faces being processed as objects. Instead, another element is involved. Two potential explanations follow.

Perceptual learning

Perceptual learning is a common alternative explanation to the configural processing hypothesis for the face inversion effect. According to the perceptual learning theory, being presented with a stimulus (for example, faces or cars) more often makes that stimulus easier to recognise in the future. [18]

Most people are highly familiar with viewing upright faces. It follows that highly efficient mechanisms have been able to develop to the quick detection and identification of upright faces. [19] This means that the face inversion effect would therefore be caused by an increased amount of experience with perceiving and recognising upright faces compared to inverted faces. [20]

Face-scheme incompatibility

The face-scheme incompatibility model has been proposed in order to explain some of the missing elements of the configural information hypothesis. According to the model, faces are processed and assigned meaning by the use of schemes and prototypes. [21]

The model defines a scheme as an abstract representation of the general structure of a face, including characteristics common to most faces (i.e. the structure of and relationships between facial features). A prototype refers to an image of what an average face would look like for a particular group (e.g. humans or monkeys). After being recognised as a face with the use of a scheme, new faces are added to a group by being evaluated for their similarity to that group's prototype. [21]

There are different schemes for upright and inverted faces: upright faces are more frequently viewed and thus have more efficient schemes than inverted faces. The face inversion effect is thus partly caused by less efficient schemes for processing the less familiar inverted form of faces. [21] This makes the face-scheme incompatibility model similar to the perceptual learning theory, because both consider the role of experience important in the quick recognition of faces. [20] [21]

Integration of theories

Instead of just one explanation for the face inversion effect, it is more likely that aspects of different theories apply. For example, faces could be processed with configural information but the role of experience may be important for quickly recognising a particular type of face (i.e. human or dog) by building schemes of this facial type. [17]

Development

The ability to quickly detect and recognise faces was important in early human life, and is still useful today. For example, facial expressions can provide various signals important for communication. [22] [23] Highly efficient facial recognition mechanisms have therefore developed to support this ability. [18]

As humans get older, they become more familiar with upright human faces and continuously refine the mechanisms used to recognise them. [24] This process allows people to quickly detect faces around them, which helps with social interaction. [22]

By about the first year of life, infants are familiar with faces in their upright form and are thus more prone to experiencing the face inversion effect. As they age, they get better at recognising faces and so the face inversion effect becomes stronger. [24] The increased strength of the face inversion effect over time supports the perceptual learning hypothesis, since more experience with faces results in increased susceptibility to the effect. [20]

The more familiar a particular type of face (e.g. human or dog) is, the more susceptible one is to the face inversion effect for that face. This applies to both humans and other species. For example, older chimpanzees familiar with human faces experienced the face inversion effect when viewing human faces, but the same result did not occur for younger chimpanzees familiar with chimpanzee faces. [25] The face inversion effect was also stronger for dog faces when they were viewed by dog experts. [13] This evidence demonstrates that familiarity with a particular type of face develops over time and appears to be necessary for the face inversion effect to occur.

Exceptions

There are a number of conditions that may reduce or even eliminate the face inversion effect. This is because the mechanism used to recognise faces by forming holistic representations is absent or disrupted. This can cause faces to be processed the same way as other (non-facial) objects.

Prosopagnosia

Prosopagnosia is a condition marked by an inability to recognize faces. [26] When those with prosopagnosia view faces, the fusiform gyrus (a facial recognition area of the brain) activates differently to how it would in someone without the condition. [27] Additionally, non-facial object recognition areas (such as the ventral occipitotemporal extrastriate cortex) are activated when viewing faces, suggesting that faces and objects are processed similarly. [12]

Individuals with prosopagnosia can be unaffected or even benefit from face inversion in facial recognition tasks. [26] [28] Normally, they process upright faces featurally, like objects. Inverted faces are also processed featurally rather than holistically. [29] This demonstrates that there is no difference between the processing of upright and inverted faces, which explains why there is no disproportionate delay for recognizing inverted faces. [12]

Autism spectrum disorder

Like those with prosopagnosia, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) do not use a configural processing mechanism to form a holistic representation of a face. [30] Instead, they tend to process faces with the use of local or featural information. [31] This means that the same featural mechanisms are used between processing upright faces, inverted faces, and objects. Consequentially, the face inversion effect is less likely to occur in those with ASD. [32]

However, there is some evidence that the development of a holistic facial recognition mechanism in those with ASD is simply delayed, rather than missing. This would mean that there would actually be a difference between the processing of upright and inverted faces. Those with ASD may therefore eventually become susceptible to the face inversion effect. [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agnosia</span> Medical condition

Agnosia is the inability to process sensory information. Often there is a loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells while the specific sense is not defective nor is there any significant memory loss. It is usually associated with brain injury or neurological illness, particularly after damage to the occipitotemporal border, which is part of the ventral stream. Agnosia only affects a single modality, such as vision or hearing. More recently, a top-down interruption is considered to cause the disturbance of handling perceptual information.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Face perception</span> Cognitive process of visually interpreting the human face

Facial perception is an individual's understanding and interpretation of the face. Here, perception implies the presence of consciousness and hence excludes automated facial recognition systems. Although facial recognition is found in other species, this article focuses on facial perception in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prosopagnosia</span> Cognitive disorder of face perception

Prosopagnosia, also known as face blindness, is a cognitive disorder of face perception in which the ability to recognize familiar faces, including one's own face (self-recognition), is impaired, while other aspects of visual processing and intellectual functioning remain intact. The term originally referred to a condition following acute brain damage, but a congenital or developmental form of the disorder also exists, with a prevalence of 2.5%. The brain area usually associated with prosopagnosia is the fusiform gyrus, which activates specifically in response to faces. The functionality of the fusiform gyrus allows most people to recognize faces in more detail than they do similarly complex inanimate objects. For those with prosopagnosia, the method for recognizing faces depends on the less sensitive object-recognition system. The right hemisphere fusiform gyrus is more often involved in familiar face recognition than the left. It remains unclear whether the fusiform gyrus is specific for the recognition of human faces or if it is also involved in highly trained visual stimuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thatcher effect</span> Optical illusion

The Thatcher effect or Thatcher illusion is a phenomenon where it becomes more difficult to detect local feature changes in an upside-down face, despite identical changes being obvious in an upright face. It is named after the then British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, on whose photograph the effect was first demonstrated. The effect was originally created in 1980 by Peter Thompson, Professor of Psychology at the University of York.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Associative visual agnosia</span> Medical condition

Associative visual agnosia is a form of visual agnosia. It is an impairment in recognition or assigning meaning to a stimulus that is accurately perceived and not associated with a generalized deficit in intelligence, memory, language or attention. The disorder appears to be very uncommon in a "pure" or uncomplicated form and is usually accompanied by other complex neuropsychological problems due to the nature of the etiology. Affected individuals can accurately distinguish the object, as demonstrated by the ability to draw a picture of it or categorize accurately, yet they are unable to identify the object, its features or its functions.

Visual agnosia is an impairment in recognition of visually presented objects. It is not due to a deficit in vision, language, memory, or intellect. While cortical blindness results from lesions to primary visual cortex, visual agnosia is often due to damage to more anterior cortex such as the posterior occipital and/or temporal lobe(s) in the brain.[2] There are two types of visual agnosia: apperceptive agnosia and associative agnosia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inferior temporal gyrus</span> One of three gyri of the temporal lobe of the brain

The inferior temporal gyrus is one of three gyri of the temporal lobe and is located below the middle temporal gyrus, connected behind with the inferior occipital gyrus; it also extends around the infero-lateral border on to the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where it is limited by the inferior sulcus. This region is one of the higher levels of the ventral stream of visual processing, associated with the representation of objects, places, faces, and colors. It may also be involved in face perception, and in the recognition of numbers and words.

Visual search is a type of perceptual task requiring attention that typically involves an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or feature among other objects or features. Visual search can take place with or without eye movements. The ability to consciously locate an object or target amongst a complex array of stimuli has been extensively studied over the past 40 years. Practical examples of using visual search can be seen in everyday life, such as when one is picking out a product on a supermarket shelf, when animals are searching for food among piles of leaves, when trying to find a friend in a large crowd of people, or simply when playing visual search games such as Where's Wally?

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fusiform face area</span> Part of the human visual system that is specialized for facial recognition

The fusiform face area is a part of the human visual system that is specialized for facial recognition. It is located in the inferior temporal cortex (IT), in the fusiform gyrus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mooney Face Test</span>

The Mooney Face Test, developed by Craig M. Mooney, was first introduced in his 1957 article “Age in the development of closure ability in children.” Participants in the test are shown series of black and white distorted photographs, presented in such a way that would require them to perform closure. The law of closure is one of the seven Gestalt principles that describes a tendency of our perception to view an incomplete object as continuing and complete. The test assumes that perception is based on the collected information taken from the different regions of the image, which then constitute a holistic representation of a face. Today, there are many iterations of the Mooney Face Test, a number of which contain images that involve image color inversion and facial feature scrambling.

The greebles are artificial objects designed to be used as stimuli in psychological studies of object and face recognition. They were named by the American psychologist Robert Abelson. The greebles were created for Isabel Gauthier's dissertation work at Yale, so as to share constraints with faces: they have a small number of parts in a common configuration. Greebles have appeared in psychology textbooks, and in more than 25 scientific articles on perception. They are often used in mental rotation task experiments.

The cross-race effect is the tendency to more easily recognize faces that belong to one's own racial group. In social psychology, the cross-race effect is described as the "ingroup advantage," whereas in other fields, the effect can be seen as a specific form of the "ingroup advantage" since it is only applied in interracial or inter-ethnic situations. The cross-race effect is thought to contribute to difficulties in cross-race identification, as well as implicit racial bias.

Prosopamnesia is a selective neurological impairment in the ability to learn new faces. There is a special neural circuit for the processing of faces as opposed to other non-face objects. Prosopamnesia is a deficit in the part of this circuit responsible for encoding perceptions as memories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superior temporal sulcus</span> Part of the brains temporal lobe

The superior temporal sulcus (STS) is the sulcus separating the superior temporal gyrus from the middle temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe of the brain. A sulcus is a deep groove that curves into the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum, and a gyrus is a ridge that curves outward of the cerebrum.

Visual object recognition refers to the ability to identify the objects in view based on visual input. One important signature of visual object recognition is "object invariance", or the ability to identify objects across changes in the detailed context in which objects are viewed, including changes in illumination, object pose, and background context.

The N170 is a component of the event-related potential (ERP) that reflects the neural processing of faces, familiar objects or words. Furthermore, the N170 is modulated by prediction error processes.

Images and other stimuli contain both local features and global features. Precedence refers to the level of processing to which attention is first directed. Global precedence occurs when an individual more readily identifies the global feature when presented with a stimulus containing both global and local features. The global aspect of an object embodies the larger, overall image as a whole, whereas the local aspect consists of the individual features that make up this larger whole. Global processing is the act of processing a visual stimulus holistically. Although global precedence is generally more prevalent than local precedence, local precedence also occurs under certain circumstances and for certain individuals. Global precedence is closely related to the Gestalt principles of grouping in that the global whole is a grouping of proximal and similar objects. Within global precedence, there is also the global interference effect, which occurs when an individual is directed to identify the local characteristic, and the global characteristic subsequently interferes by slowing the reaction time.

In psychology, the face superiority effect refers to the phenomena of how all individuals perceive and encode other human faces in memory. Rather than perceiving and encoding single features of a face, we perceive and encode a human face as one holistic unified element. This phenomenon aids our visual system in the recognition of thousands of faces, a task that would be difficult if it were necessary to recognize sets of individual features and characteristics. However, this effect is limited to perceiving upright faces and does not occur when a face is at an unusual angle, such as when faces are upside-down or contorted in phenomena like the Thatcher effect and Pareidolia.

Prosopometamorphopsia is a visual disorder characterized by altered perceptions of faces. Facial features are distorted in a variety of ways including drooping, swelling, discoloration, and shifts of position. Prosopometamorphopsia is distinct from prosopagnosia which is characterised by the inability to recognise faces. About 75 cases of prosopometamorphopsia have been reported in the scientific literature. In about half of the reported cases, features on both sides of the face appear distorted. In the other half of cases, distortions are restricted to one side of the face and this condition is called hemi-prosopometamorphopsia.

The occipital face area (OFA) is a region of the human cerebral cortex which is specialised for face perception. The OFA is located on the lateral surface of the occipital lobe adjacent to the inferior occipital gyrus. The OFA comprises a network of brain regions including the fusiform face area (FFA) and posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS) which support facial processing.

References

  1. ↑ Civile, Ciro; Mclaren, Rossy; Mclaren, I.P.L. (2013-09-23). The face inversion effect—Parts and wholes: Individual features and their configuration. Vol. 67.
  2. ↑ Yin, Robert K. (1969). "Looking at upside-down faces". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 81 (1): 141–145. doi:10.1037/h0027474. ISSN   0022-1015.
  3. ↑ Farah, M. J.; Wilson, K. D.; Drain, H. M.; Tanaka, J. R. (1995). "The inverted face inversion effect in prosopagnosia: evidence for mandatory, face-specific perceptual mechanisms". Vision Research. 35 (14): 2089–2093. doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(94)00273-O . ISSN   0042-6989. PMID   7660612.
  4. ↑ Thornton, Ian; Mullins, Emma; Banahan, Kara (2011). "Motion can amplify the face-inversion effect". Psihologija. 44 (1): 5–22. doi: 10.2298/psi1101005t .
  5. 1 2 Kanwisher, Nancy; Yovel, Galit (2006-12-29). "The fusiform face area: a cortical region specialized for the perception of faces 9". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1476): 2109–2128. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1934. PMC   1857737 . PMID   17118927.
  6. ↑ Gilaie-Dotan, Sharon; Gelbard-Sagiv, Hagar; Malach, Rafael (2010-04-01). "Perceptual shape sensitivity to upright and inverted faces is reflected in neuronal adaptation". NeuroImage. 50 (2): 383–395. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.077. PMC   3221039 . PMID   20044007.
  7. 1 2 Epstein, Russell; Kanwisher, Nancy (1998). "A cortical representation of the local visual environment". Nature. 392 (6676): 598–601. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..598E. doi:10.1038/33402. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   9560155. S2CID   920141.
  8. 1 2 Malach, R; Reppas, J B; Benson, R R; Kwong, K K; Jiang, H; Kennedy, W A; Ledden, P J; Brady, T J; Rosen, B R (1995-08-29). "Object-related activity revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging in human occipital cortex". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (18): 8135–8139. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.8135M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.18.8135 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   41110 . PMID   7667258.
  9. 1 2 3 Pitcher, David; Duchaine, Bradley; Walsh, Vincent; Yovel, Galit; Kanwisher, Nancy (2011). "The role of lateral occipital face and object areas in the face inversion effect". Neuropsychologia. 49 (12): 3448–3453. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.08.020. ISSN   0028-3932. PMID   21896279. S2CID   6834054.
  10. 1 2 Freire, Alejo; Lee, Kang; Symons, Lawrence A (2000). "The Face-Inversion Effect as a Deficit in the Encoding of Configural Information: Direct Evidence". Perception. 29 (2): 159–170. doi:10.1068/p3012. ISSN   0301-0066. PMID   10820599. S2CID   19695957.
  11. 1 2 Yovel, Galit; Kanwisher, Nancy (2005). "The Neural Basis of the Behavioral Face-Inversion Effect". Current Biology. 15 (24): 2256–2262. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2005.10.072 . ISSN   0960-9822. PMID   16360687.
  12. 1 2 3 Haxby, James V; Ungerleider, Leslie G; Clark, Vincent P; Schouten, Jennifer L; Hoffman, Elizabeth A; Martin, Alex (1999). "The Effect of Face Inversion on Activity in Human Neural Systems for Face and Object Perception". Neuron. 22 (1): 189–199. doi: 10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80690-x . ISSN   0896-6273. PMID   10027301.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Civile, Ciro; McLaren, Rossy; McLaren, Ian P. L. (2016). "The Face Inversion Effect: Roles of First and Second-Order Configural Information". The American Journal of Psychology. 129 (1): 23–35. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.129.1.0023. hdl: 10871/19932 . JSTOR   10.5406/amerjpsyc.129.1.0023. PMID   27029104.
  14. 1 2 Tanaka, James W.; Farah, Martha J. (1993). "Parts and wholes in face recognition". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 46 (2): 225–245. doi:10.1080/14640749308401045. PMID   8316637. S2CID   33396424.
  15. 1 2 3 Taubert, Jessica; Apthorp, Deborah; Aagten-Murphy, David; Alais, David (2011). "The role of holistic processing in face perception: Evidence from the face inversion effect". Vision Research. 51 (11): 1273–1278. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2011.04.002 . ISSN   0042-6989. PMID   21496463.
  16. ↑ Rossion, B (1999-07-01). "Spatio-temporal localization of the face inversion effect: an event-related potentials study". Biological Psychology. 50 (3): 173–189. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(99)00013-7. ISSN   0301-0511. PMID   10461804. S2CID   18206643.
  17. 1 2 Matsuyoshi, Daisuke; Morita, Tomoyo; Kochiyama, Takanori; Tanabe, Hiroki C.; Sadato, Norihiro; Kakigi, Ryusuke (2015-03-11). "Dissociable Cortical Pathways for Qualitative and Quantitative Mechanisms in the Face Inversion Effect". Journal of Neuroscience. 35 (10): 4268–4279. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3960-14.2015. ISSN   0270-6474. PMC   6605288 . PMID   25762673.
  18. 1 2 Wallis, Guy (2013). "Toward a unified model of face and object recognition in the human visual system". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 497. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00497 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   3744012 . PMID   23966963.
  19. ↑ Gold, J.; Bennett, P. J.; Sekuler, A. B. (1999). "Signal but not noise changes with perceptual learning". Nature. 402 (6758): 176–178. Bibcode:1999Natur.402..176G. doi:10.1038/46027. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   10647007. S2CID   4426137.
  20. 1 2 3 Sekuler, Allison B; Gaspar, Carl M; Gold, Jason M; Bennett, Patrick J (2004). "Inversion Leads to Quantitative, Not Qualitative, Changes in Face Processing". Current Biology. 14 (5): 391–396. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2004.02.028 . ISSN   0960-9822. PMID   15028214.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Rakover, Sam S. (2013-08-01). "Explaining the face-inversion effect: the face–scheme incompatibility (FSI) model". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 20 (4): 665–692. doi: 10.3758/s13423-013-0388-1 . ISSN   1069-9384. PMID   23381811.
  22. 1 2 Schmidt, Karen L.; Cohn, Jeffrey F. (2001). "Human Facial Expressions as Adaptations: Evolutionary Questions in Facial Expression Research". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Suppl 33: 3–24. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20001. ISSN   0002-9483. PMC   2238342 . PMID   11786989.
  23. ↑ Goldman, Alvin I.; Sripada, Chandra Sekhar (2005). "Simulationist models of face-based emotion recognition". Cognition. 94 (3): 193–213. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2004.01.005. ISSN   0010-0277. PMID   15617671. S2CID   12794842.
  24. 1 2 Passarotti, A.M.; Smith, J.; DeLano, M.; Huang, J. (2007). "Developmental differences in the neural bases of the face inversion effect show progressive tuning of face-selective regions to the upright orientation". NeuroImage. 34 (4): 1708–1722. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.07.045. ISSN   1053-8119. PMID   17188904. S2CID   18661084.
  25. ↑ Dahl, Christoph D.; Rasch, Malte J.; Tomonaga, Masaki; Adachi, Ikuma (2013-08-27). "The face inversion effect in non-human primates revisited - an investigation in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)". Scientific Reports. 3 (1): 2504. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E2504D. doi:10.1038/srep02504. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   3753590 . PMID   23978930.
  26. 1 2 Busigny, Thomas; Rossion, Bruno (2010). "Acquired prosopagnosia abolishes the face inversion effect". Cortex. 46 (8): 965–981. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.07.004. ISSN   0010-9452. PMID   19683710. S2CID   16844554.
  27. ↑ Grüter, Thomas; Grüter, Martina; Carbon, Claus-Christian (2008). "Neural and genetic foundations of face recognition and prosopagnosia". Journal of Neuropsychology. 2 (1): 79–97. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.571.9472 . doi:10.1348/174866407x231001. ISSN   1748-6645. PMID   19334306.
  28. ↑ Farah, Martha J; Wilson, Kevin D; Maxwell Drain, H; Tanaka, James R (1995-07-01). "The inverted face inversion effect in prosopagnosia: Evidence for mandatory, face-specific perceptual mechanisms". Vision Research. 35 (14): 2089–2093. doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(94)00273-O . ISSN   0042-6989. PMID   7660612.
  29. ↑ Avidan, Galia; Tanzer, Michal; Behrmann, Marlene (2011). "Impaired holistic processing in congenital prosopagnosia". Neuropsychologia. 49 (9): 2541–2552. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.05.002. PMC   3137703 . PMID   21601583.
  30. ↑ van der Geest, J.N.; Kemner, C.; Verbaten, M.N.; van Engeland, H. (2002). "Gaze behavior of children with pervasive developmental disorder toward human faces: a fixation time study". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 43 (5): 669–678. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00055. ISSN   0021-9630. PMID   12120862.
  31. ↑ Behrmann, Marlene; Avidan, Galia; Leonard, Grace Lee; Kimchi, Rutie; Luna, Beatriz; Humphreys, Kate; Minshew, Nancy (2006). "Configural processing in autism and its relationship to face processing". Neuropsychologia. 44 (1): 110–129. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.360.7141 . doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.04.002. PMID   15907952. S2CID   6407530.
  32. ↑ Falck-Ytter, Terje (2008). "Face inversion effects in autism: a combined looking time and pupillometric study". Autism Research. 1 (5): 297–306. doi:10.1002/aur.45. PMID   19360681. S2CID   1123044.
  33. ↑ Hedley, Darren; Brewer, Neil; Young, Robyn (2014-10-31). "The Effect of Inversion on Face Recognition in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 45 (5): 1368–1379. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2297-1. ISSN   0162-3257. PMID   25358250. S2CID   12284026.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.