Xanthine oxidase is a form of xanthine oxidoreductase, a type of enzyme that generates reactive oxygen species. These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of hypoxanthine to xanthine and can further catalyze the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid. These enzymes play an important role in the catabolism of purines in some species, including humans.
Cytochrome P450 2E1 is a member of the cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidase system, which is involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics in the body. This class of enzymes is divided up into a number of subcategories, including CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3, which as a group are largely responsible for the breakdown of foreign compounds in mammals.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, abbreviated NADP+ or, in older notation, TPN (triphosphopyridine nucleotide), is a cofactor used in anabolic reactions, such as the Calvin cycle and lipid and nucleic acid syntheses, which require NADPH as a reducing agent ('hydrogen source'). NADPH is the reduced form, whereas NADP+ is the oxidized form. NADP+ is used by all forms of cellular life.
Drug metabolism is the metabolic breakdown of drugs by living organisms, usually through specialized enzymatic systems. More generally, xenobiotic metabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that modify the chemical structure of xenobiotics, which are compounds foreign to an organism's normal biochemistry, such as any drug or poison. These pathways are a form of biotransformation present in all major groups of organisms and are considered to be of ancient origin. These reactions often act to detoxify poisonous compounds. The study of drug metabolism is called pharmacokinetics.
Toxication, toxification or toxicity exaltation is the conversion of a chemical compound into a more toxic form in living organisms or in substrates such as soil or water. The conversion can be caused by enzymatic metabolism in the organisms, as well as by abiotic chemical reactions. While the parent drug are usually less active, both the parent drug and its metabolite can be chemically active and cause toxicity, leading to mutagenesis, teratogenesis, and carcinogenesis. Different classes of enzymes, such as P450-monooxygenases, epoxide hydrolase, or acetyltransferases can catalyze the process in the cell, mostly in the liver.
Male contraceptives, also known as male birth control, are methods of preventing pregnancy by leveraging male physiology. Globally, the most common forms of male contraceptives include condoms, vasectomy, and withdrawal. Men are largely limited to these forms of contraception, and combined, male contraceptives make up less than one-third of total contraceptive use today. The most commonly used method is the male condom.
Toluene toxicity refers to the harmful effects caused by toluene on the body.
Retinoic acid (used simplified here for all-trans-retinoic acid) is a metabolite of vitamin A1 (all-trans-retinol) that mediates the functions of vitamin A1 required for growth and development. All-trans-retinoic acid is required in chordate animals, which includes all higher animals from fish to humans. During early embryonic development, all-trans-retinoic acid generated in a specific region of the embryo helps determine position along the embryonic anterior/posterior axis by serving as an intercellular signaling molecule that guides development of the posterior portion of the embryo. It acts through Hox genes, which ultimately control anterior/posterior patterning in early developmental stages.
Aldehyde dehydrogenases are a group of enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of aldehydes. They convert aldehydes to carboxylic acids. The oxygen comes from a water molecule. To date, nineteen ALDH genes have been identified within the human genome. These genes participate in a wide variety of biological processes including the detoxification of exogenously and endogenously generated aldehydes.
Hexobarbital or hexobarbitone, sold both in acid and sodium salt forms as Citopan, Evipan, and Tobinal, is a barbiturate derivative having hypnotic and sedative effects. It was used in the 1940s and 1950s as an agent for inducing anesthesia for surgery, as well as a rapid-acting, short-lasting hypnotic for general use, and has a relatively fast onset of effects and short duration of action. It was also used to murder women prisoners at Ravensbrück concentration camp. Modern barbiturates have largely supplanted the use of hexobarbital as an anesthetic, as they allow for better control of the depth of anesthesia. Hexobarbital is still used in some scientific research.
Adjudin (AF-2364) is a drug which is under development as a potential non-hormonal male contraceptive drug, which acts by blocking the production of sperm in the testes, but without affecting testosterone production. It is an analogue of the chemotherapy drug lonidamine, an indazole-carboxylic acid, and further studies continue to be conducted into this family of drugs as possible contraceptives.
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a metabolizing enzyme, located in the cytosolic compartment of tissues in many organisms. AO catalyzes the oxidation of aldehydes into carboxylic acid, and in addition, catalyzes the hydroxylation of some heterocycles. It can also catalyze the oxidation of both cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and monoamine oxidase (MAO) intermediate products. AO plays an important role in the metabolism of several drugs.
In enzymology, a retinal dehydrogenase, also known as retinaldehyde dehydrogenase (RALDH), catalyzes the chemical reaction converting retinal to retinoic acid. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically the class acting on aldehyde or oxo- donor groups with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor groups, the systematic name being retinal:NAD+ oxidoreductase. This enzyme participates in retinol metabolism. The general scheme for the reaction catalyzed by this enzyme is:
Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family, member A2, also known as ALDH1A2 or retinaldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (RALDH2), is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ALDH1A2 gene.
Coprine is a mycotoxin. It was first isolated from common inkcap. It occurs in mushrooms in the genera Coprinopsis. When combined with alcohol, it causes "Coprinus syndrome". It inhibits the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which is involved in the metabolism of alcohol. This inhibition leads to a buildup of acetaldehyde, causing an alcohol flush reaction. Because of this, the mushroom is commonly referred to as Tippler's Bane.
Diethyl phthalate (DEP) is a phthalate ester. It occurs as a colourless liquid without significant odour but has a bitter, disagreeable taste. It is more dense than water and insoluble in water; hence, it sinks in water.
Cytochrome P450 omega hydroxylases, also termed cytochrome P450 ω-hydroxylases, CYP450 omega hydroxylases, CYP450 ω-hydroxylases, CYP omega hydroxylase, CYP ω-hydroxylases, fatty acid omega hydroxylases, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, and fatty acid monooxygenases, are a set of cytochrome P450-containing enzymes that catalyze the addition of a hydroxyl residue to a fatty acid substrate. The CYP omega hydroxylases are often referred to as monoxygenases; however, the monooxygenases are CYP450 enzymes that add a hydroxyl group to a wide range of xenobiotic and naturally occurring endobiotic substrates, most of which are not fatty acids. The CYP450 omega hydroxylases are accordingly better viewed as a subset of monooxygenases that have the ability to hydroxylate fatty acids. While once regarded as functioning mainly in the catabolism of dietary fatty acids, the omega oxygenases are now considered critical in the production or break-down of fatty acid-derived mediators which are made by cells and act within their cells of origin as autocrine signaling agents or on nearby cells as paracrine signaling agents to regulate various functions such as blood pressure control and inflammation.
Penicillin Roquefort Toxin is a mycotoxin produced by the fungi Penicillium roqueforti. In 1973, PR toxin was first partially characterized by isolating moldy corn on which the fungi had grown. Although its lethal dose was determined shortly after the isolation of the chemical, details of its toxic effects were not fully clarified until 1982 in a study with mice, rats, anesthetized cats and preparations of isolated rat auricles.
Nicotryine is lesser known and minor tobacco alkaloid. It inhibits metabolism of nicotine through CYP2A6 enzyme inhibition. It also inhibits CYP2A13 which might play role in nicotine metabolism. Nicotyrine is formed by gradual oxidation of nicotine in e-liquids and causes delayed nicotine clearance and attenuated withdrawal symptoms.
Monocrotaline (MCT) is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid that is present in plants of the Crotalaria genus. These species can synthesise MCT out of amino acids and can cause liver, lung and kidney damage in various organisms. Initial stress factors are released intracellular upon binding of MCT to BMPR2 receptors and elevated MAPK phosphorylation levels are induced, which can cause cancer in Homo sapiens. MCT can be detoxified in rats via oxidation, followed by glutathione-conjugation and hydrolysis.
