Finnish military administration in Eastern Karelia

Last updated

Military Administration in Eastern Karelia
Itä-Karjalan sotilashallinto
Military administration by Finland
1941–1944
Finnish advance in Karelia during the Continuation War.png
Finnish advance to Eastern Karelia during the
Continuation War. The military administration extended
further north. Red area inside the gray borders was re-annexed directly to Finland on 9 December 1941. [1]
Capital Mikkeli (1941)
Joensuu (1941–1943)
Petrozavodsk (1943–1944)
History
Government
Military Commander  
• 1941–1942
Väinö Kotilainen
• 1942–1943
J. V. Arajuuri
• 1943–1944
Olli Paloheimo
Historical eraWorld War II
• Military occupation
1941
• Disestablished
1944
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Flag of the Karelo-Finnish SSR.svg Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic
Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic Flag of the Karelo-Finnish SSR.svg

The Finnish military administration in Eastern Karelia was an interim administrative system established in those areas of the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (KFSSR) of the Soviet Union which were occupied by the Finnish army during the Continuation War. The military administration was set up on 15 July 1941 and it ended during the summer of 1944. The goal of the administration was to prepare the region for eventual annexation by Finland.

Contents

The administration did not encompass the territories ceded to the Soviet Union in the Moscow Peace Treaty and subsequently recaptured by the Finns during the summer offensive of 1941.

Background

Finnish interest in Russian Karelia goes back to the 19th century. [2] Eastern Karelia was seen as the cradle of Finnish culture and the ancient land of the heroic sagas of the Kalevala. [2] Along with the rise of Finnish anti-Russian sentiment, the "Karelian question" became politicized. [2] During and after the Finnish civil war, several voluntary expeditions were launched with the intended goal of liberating the Karelian "kindred people", without success. [2]

The Continuation War and belief in a quick German victory over the Soviet Union once again gave rise to Finnish irredentism. [2] The legality of the Finnish claims on Eastern Karelia was justified by both ethno-cultural and military security factors. [2] During the spring of 1941, when the Finnish political leadership understood the full extent of the German plans concerning the Soviet Union, president Ryti commissioned professor of geography Väinö Auer and historian Eino Jutikkala to demonstrate "scholarly" that Eastern Karelia formed a natural part of the Finnish living space. [3] The resulting book Finnlands Lebensraum ("Finland's Living Space") was published in the autumn of 1941, and was intended to legitimize Finnish claims and actions to the international audience. [3] A similar book by historian Jalmari Jaakkola, Die Ostfrage Finnlands ("Finland's Eastern Question") was published in the summer of the same year. [4]

The Finnish expansionist aims are present in Finnish Commander-in-Chief C. G. E. Mannerheim's Order of the Day given on 10 July 1941, which was based on an earlier declaration given by him during the Finnish civil war. [5]

Organization

Administrative map of Finland in 1942-1944 (including East Karelia) Finland Administrative map 1942 1944.png
Administrative map of Finland in 1942-1944 (including East Karelia)

The military administration was established on the order of the Commander-in-Chief, and was mainly under the control of the Army, not the Finnish government. [2] [6] It was originally divided into three districts ("piiri"), which were further divided into sub-regions ("alue"). The military administration used exclusively Finnish-Karelian place names (Russian names are given in parentheses).

List of the administrative divisions of East Karelia: [7]

The Maaselkä district was abolished in late 1942. The Karhumäki, Paatene and Porajärvi sub-regions were transferred to Aunus district and the Repola and Rukajärvi sub-regions were transferred to Viena district.

Headquarters

The military administration was originally stationed in Mikkeli, Finland, where the general staff of the Finnish army was located. On 15 October, it was transferred to Joensuu, Finland, and finally on 15 November 1943, to Äänislinna (Petrozavodsk), KFSSR. [8]

Military Commanders

Prime minister Jukka Rangell (in the middle) also Major General of the Military Administration of East Karelia Johan Arajuuri (right) and lieutenant colonel Paloheimo (left), east Karelian village in the summer of 1942. Paaministeri Rangell, kenraalimajuri Arajuuri ja everstiluutnantti Paloheimo kuuntelevat 15.7.1942.jpg
Prime minister Jukka Rangell (in the middle) also Major General of the Military Administration of East Karelia Johan Arajuuri (right) and lieutenant colonel Paloheimo (left), east Karelian village in the summer of 1942.

The first commander of the military administration was mining counselor and CEO of Enso-Gutzeit, Lieutenant Colonel Väinö Kotilainen. Kotilainen was followed by Colonel J. V. Arajuuri from 15 June 1942 to 19 August 1943, and finally by Col Olli Paloheimo who held the position to the end of the war. [9]

On the staff of the military commander worked professor of administrative law Veli Merikoski, whose task was to ensure that the military administration functioned in accordance with international law. [10] After the end of the Continuation War, Merikoski wrote a booklet on the military administration, describing it in an overtly positive light. [10] This was done to help the Finnish cause in the coming peace negotiations. [10]

Academic Karelia Society

Members of the Academic Karelia Society (AKS), a Finno-Ugric activist organization, held a dominating role in the military administration. [11] During the Continuation War the "liberation" of Eastern Karelia had become the main focus point of AKS activities, and its members were highly influential in choosing the policies of the military administration in accordance with the organization's "Greater Finland" ideology. [11] In the summer of 1941, over half of the initial higher leadership of the military administration were AKS members. [11]

Policies

The long-term goal of the military administration was to make it possible for Eastern Karelia to be permanently integrated to the Finnish state after the ultimate German victory over the Soviet Union. [1] This was to be done by inspiring the native population's confidence towards the Finnish occupiers. [10]

Fennicization

As most place names in Eastern Karelia had a historical Finnish or Karelian alternatives which were still in use in the KFSSR, extensive renaming was not necessary. [12] The notable exception is Petroskoi (Petrozavodsk), which was deemed as sounding too "Russian", and was renamed Äänislinna, a literal Finnish translation of the name Onegaborg used in the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum of Abraham Ortelius. [12] [13] Although Finnish troops never reached Kemi (Kem) on the shores of the White Sea, this town was also to be renamed, as a town with an identical name already stood in Finnish Lapland. [14] The new name was tentatively suggested to be Vienanlinna ("Castle of Viena"), a continuation of several Finnish cities and towns ending in suffix -linna (e.g. Hämeenlinna, Savonlinna). [14]

Streets were to be named after prominent Finns and patriots (such as Mannerheim, Elias Lönnrot, Elias Simojoki and Paavo Talvela), and also after names featured in the Kalevala and the Kanteletar. [15] The Karelian population was also discouraged from giving their children Slavic names. [15]

Ethnic policies

The remaining population of Eastern Karelia was estimated to be under 85,000 in 1941, and consisted mainly of women, children and the elderly, while the pre-war population was about 300,000. [16] The Finnish authorities further estimated that of the remaining 85,000, about half could be classified as "national"; that is, Karelians, Finns, Estonians, Ingrians, Vepsians and other smaller Finnic minorities considered "kindred peoples" (heimo). [16] [17] The majority of the population was defined as "non-national", with most being Russian or Ukrainian. [17] The Finns encountered considerable challenges in dividing the population into these two groups, as linguistic and ethnic boundaries were not very apparent. [17] Ultimately, the division was based on ethnic principles (sometimes expressing somewhat pseudo-scientific anthropological theories), and thus monolingual Russian-speaking Karelians and children from multinational families were usually classified as "national". [16] [17] The long-term goal of this pursued policy was to expel the "non-national" part of the population to German-occupied Russia after the war had reached a victorious conclusion. [16]

Education and propaganda

Finnish propaganda directed at the Karelian population focused on pan-Finnicism, presented the occupiers as liberators, and also tried to encourage antagonism between the Karelians and Russians. [18] The main propaganda tools of the military administration were the newspaper Vapaa Karjala ("Free Karelia") and Aunus Radio. [19]

School attendance was obligatory for 7- to 15-year-old children classified as "national" in ethnicity. [20] The language of instruction was Finnish and the teaching had a heavy focus on Finnish nationalistic and religious themes. [14] [20] If the children were monolingual Russian or Veps speakers, with the latter language differing considerably from Finnish, Karelian-speaking children were used as translators. [14] By the end of 1942, 110 elementary schools were opened, with an attendance of over 10,000 children. [16]

One of the aims of the military administration was the revival of religious observation, which had been completely repressed under Soviet rule. [21] The central idea of this policy was to bolster anti-communist feelings among the "nationals". [16]

Planned population transfers

In 1943, the Finnish Post Office issued its own stamp for the occupation administration of Eastern Karelia. Stamp Karelia Finnish occupation 1943 semipostal.jpg
In 1943, the Finnish Post Office issued its own stamp for the occupation administration of Eastern Karelia.

Suffering from severe underpopulation, especially after the planned expulsion of the "non-national" ethnic groups, the Finns theorized several possible ways to repopulate the region. Most suggestions revolved around the re-settlement of certain Finnic minorities of Russia. [22] The Karelians of Tver, who had escaped Swedish and Lutheran rule from the County of Kexholm and Ingria after the Ingrian War and the Treaty of Stolbovo of 1617 were especially considered, [22] as the Soviet Census of 1926 had counted them as numbering over 140,000, making the Karelian population of Tver more numerous than the Karelians in the KFSSR itself. The transfer was not, however, possible before Finnish and German fronts reached each other on the River Svir, which never happened during the war.

The other main group intended to be settled in Eastern Karelia was the Ingrian Finns of the Leningrad Oblast, [22] who according to the 1926 census numbered c. 115,000. [23] However, during Stalin's purges tens of thousands of Ingrians had perished or were transferred to other parts of the Soviet Union, [24] and in 1941 the Ingrians of Leningrad probably numbered only c. 80,000–90,000. In the autumn of 1941, Western and Central Ingria were occupied by the advancing German forces and placed under German military administration. Because Ingria was to be reserved for German colonization according to the Generalplan Ost (Ingermanland), the German and Finnish authorities agreed on a treaty which stated that Ingria was to be totally emptied of Finns and other Finnic minorities, mainly Votes and Izhorians. This treaty was implemented during March 1943 to the summer of 1944, when over 64,000 people were transferred from Ingria to Finland. [25] The Ingrians remaining areas still under the control of the Red Army (c. 20,000–30,000) were deported to Siberia during the winter of 1942–1943. After the Moscow Armistice, some 55,000 Ingrians were repatriated to the Soviet Union, but were not allowed to return to their homes in the Leningrad Oblast before the 1950s. [26] Around 7,000 to 8,000 Ingrians moved from Finland to Sweden to escape the Soviet authorities. [26]

Other discussed sources for East Karelian settlers included the Finnish immigrants of America and Canada, the Finnic Soviet prisoners of war under German capture, Eastern Karelian refugees currently living in Finland, and Finnish war veterans. [22] Land redistribution was to favor those without farms or land, disabled veterans who were still capable of working, former NCOs, border jägers and soldiers distinguished in battle. [22]

Internment and labor camps

At the beginning of the Finnish occupation of Karelia, over 20,000 of the local ethnic Russians (almost half of them) were placed in internment and labor camps. At the end of 1941 this number rose to 24,000. Later prisoners were gradually released and then transferred to empty villages. However, their movement was controlled as they had red clearance, while "national" people had green clearance. Furthermore, ethnic Russians did not have permission to travel to Finland. [27]

Living in the Finnish camps was harsh as 4,000–7,000 of the civil prisoners died, mostly from hunger during the spring and summer of 1942 due to the failed harvest of 1941. [28] [29] Also segregation in education and medical care between Karelians and Russians created resentment among the Russian population. These actions made many local ethnic Russian people support the partisan attacks. [29]

Planned future expansion

In a conversation held on 27 November 1941 with the Finnish Foreign Minister Witting, Hitler proposed that the new Finnish border should run from the Kola Peninsula to the Svir, and in the case Leningrad was razed to the ground as originally planned, to the River Neva. [1] In Finland this theoretical border was sometimes referred to as Kolmen kannaksen raja ("the Border of Three Isthmuses", referring to the Karelian Isthmus, Olonets Isthmus and the White Sea Isthmus). The exact border of the White Sea Isthmus was left undefined during the war, but Alfred Rosenberg, head of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories (RMfdbO), held that Finland should annex the whole KFSSR. [30] The most eastward suggestion discussed among the Finnish officer corps before the war drew the line from Nimenga in the Arkhangelsk Oblast to the Pudozhsky District on Lake Onega. [31] Professor Gerhard von Mende (RMfdbO) had consulted Finnish far-right activist Erkki Räikkönen on Finland's "natural" eastern borders, and sent to Rosenberg a memorandum suggesting that the northeastern border between Finland and Germany should run along the Northern Dvina River (Finnish : Vienanjoki) near Arkangelsk. [32]

The Kola Peninsula was to be de jure a part of Finland, but the nickel deposits of the region were to be exploited jointly with Germany. [33] Jalmari Jaakkola estimated in Die Ostfrage Finnlands that some 200,000 Russian had to be expelled from the region, leaving the peninsula with a population of c. 20,000 Finns, Samis and Karelians. [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ingria</span> Historical region in northwestern Russia

Ingria is a historical region in what is now northwestern European Russia. It lies along the southeastern shore of the Gulf of Finland, bordered by Lake Ladoga on the Karelian Isthmus in the north and by the River Narva on the border with Estonia in the west. The earliest known indigenous European peoples of the region are the now mostly Eastern Orthodox Izhorians and Votians, as well as the Ingrian Finns who descend from the Lutheran Finnish immigrants who settled in the area in the 17th century, when Finland proper and Ingria were both parts of the Swedish Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Izhorians</span> Ethnic group

The Izhorians, are a Finnic indigenous people native to Ingria. Small numbers can still be found in the western part of Ingria, between the Narva and Neva rivers in northwestern Russia. Although in English oftentimes sharing a common name with the Ingrian Finns, these two groups are distinct from one another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karelian language</span> Finnic language of Karelia, in Russia and Finland

Karelian is a Finnic language spoken mainly in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically, Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, and some Finnish linguists have even classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, though in the modern day it is widely considered a separate language. Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as karjalaismurteet in Finland. In the Russian 2020–2021 census, around 9,000 people spoke Karelian natively, but around 14,000 said to be able to speak the language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karelians</span> Ethnic group

Karelians are a Finnic ethnic group who are indigenous to the historical region of Karelia, which is today split between Finland and Russia. Karelians living in Russian Karelia are considered a distinct ethnic group closely related to Finnish Karelians, who are considered a subset of Finns. This distinction historically arose from Karelia having been fought over and eventually split between Sweden and Novgorod, resulting in Karelians being under different cultural spheres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karelia (historical province of Finland)</span> Historical province of Finland

Karelia is a historical province of Finland, consisting of the modern-day regions of South Karelia and North Karelia. Historical Karelia also extends to the regions of Kymenlaakso, Northern Savonia and Southern Savonia (Mäntyharju).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Karelia</span> Historic region of Northern Europe, now part of Russia

East Karelia, also rendered as Eastern Karelia or Russian Karelia, is a name for the part of Karelia that since the Treaty of Stolbova in 1617 has remained Eastern Orthodox under Russian supremacy. It is separate from the western part of Karelia, called Finnish Karelia or historically Swedish Karelia. Most of East Karelia has become part of the Republic of Karelia within the Russian Federation. It consists mainly of the old historical regions of Viena and Aunus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karelia</span> Area of northern Europe

Karelia is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Russia, Finland, and Sweden. It is currently divided between northwestern Russia and Finland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viena expedition</span> Attempt by Finnish volunteers to annex White Karelia in 1918

The Viena expedition was a military expedition in March 1918 by Finnish volunteer forces to annex White Karelia from Soviet Russia. It was one of the many "kinship wars" (Heimosodat) fought near the newly independent Finland during the Russian Civil War. Russian East Karelia was never part of the Swedish Empire or the Grand Duchy of Finland. and it was at the time mostly inhabited by Karelians. However, many advocates of a Greater Finland considered these Karelians a "kindred" Finnish nation and supported the annexation of Russian East Karelia to Finland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ingrian Finns</span> Ethnicity in Finland and Russia

The Ingrians, sometimes called Ingrian Finns, are the Finnish population of Ingria, descending from Lutheran Finnish immigrants introduced into the area in the 17th century, when Finland and Ingria were both parts of the Swedish Empire. In the forced deportations before and after World War II, and during the genocide of Ingrian Finns, most of them were relocated to other parts of the Soviet Union, or killed. Today the Ingrian Finns constitute the largest part of the Finnish population of the Russian Federation. According to some records, some 25,000 Ingrian Finns have returned or still reside in the region of Saint Petersburg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Academic Karelia Society</span>

The Academic Karelia Society was a Finnish nationalist and Finno-Ugric activist organization aiming at the growth and improvement of newly independent Finland, founded by academics and students of the University of Finland in 1922. Its members retained influential positions in the academic life of the era as well as within the officer corps of the Army. The AKS controlled the student union of the University of Helsinki from the mid-1920s right up to 1944, when the Society was disbanded in the aftermath of the Continuation War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater Finland</span> Irredentist and nationalist idea that emphasized territorial expansion of Finland

Greater Finland, was an irredentist and nationalist idea which emphasized the territorial expansion of Finland. The most common concept of Greater Finland saw the country as defined by natural borders encompassing the territories inhabited by Finns and Karelians, ranging from the White Sea to Lake Onega and along the Svir River and Neva River—or, more modestly, the Sestra River—to the Gulf of Finland. Some proponents also included the Torne Valley, Ingria, and Estonia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heimosodat</span> Interwar conflicts in Finnic territory

The Finnish term Heimosodat refers to a series of armed conflicts and private military expeditions in 1918–1922 into areas of the former Russian Empire that bordered on Finland and were inhabited in large part by other Finnic peoples. The term has been translated into English as "Kindred Nations Wars", "Wars for kindred peoples", "Kinfolk wars", or "Kinship Wars," specifically referring to Finnic kinship. The term is sometimes erroneously translated as "Tribal wars". Finnish volunteers took part in these conflicts, either to assert Finnish control over areas inhabited by related Finnic peoples, or to help them gain independence from Soviet Russia. Many of the volunteers were inspired by the idea of "Greater Finland". Some of the conflicts were incursions from Finland, and some were local uprisings in which volunteers wanted either to help people fight for independence or to annex areas to Finland. According to Aapo Roselius, about 10,000 volunteers from Finland took part in the armed conflicts mentioned below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Ingria</span> 1919–1920 de facto state in Eastern Europe

The Republic of North Ingria or Republic of Kirjasalo was a short-lived, small state for the Ingrian Finns in the southern part of the Karelian Isthmus, which seceded from Bolshevist Russia after the October Revolution. Its aim by most proponents was to ultimately be incorporated into the Kingdom of Finland, and it ruled parts of Northern Ingria from 1919 until 1920. With the Peace Treaty of Tartu, it was re-integrated into Russia; however, Ingrian Finns of this area enjoyed a certain degree of national autonomy until the 1930s in compliance with the policy of national delimitation in the Soviet Union. In 1928 the Kuivaisi National District was established there with its administrative base in Toksovo. In 1939 it was abolished and the area was joined to the Pargolovo district. Today, it is the north-eastern part of Vsevolozhsky District.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postage stamps and postal history of Karelia</span>

Karelia has appeared in philately several times; first as a breakaway republic from Soviet Russia in 1922, later when Eastern Karelia was occupied by Finland during the Continuation War of 1941 to 1944, and in the post-Soviet period when provisional stamps and cinderellas were issued. Additionally, there were Zemstvo stamps used in the early 20th century on the territory of the contemporary Republic of Karelia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treaty of Tartu (Finland–Russia)</span> 1920 treaty establishing the border between Finland and Russia

The Treaty of Tartu was signed on 14 October 1920 between Finland and Soviet Russia after negotiations that lasted nearly five months. The treaty confirmed the border between Finland and Soviet Russia after the Finnish Civil War and Finnish volunteer expeditions in Russian East Karelia that resulted in annexation of several Russian districts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Karelia</span> Aspect of History

The Karelian people's presence can be dated back to the 7th millennium BC–6th millennium BC. The region itself is rich with fish, lakes, and minerals, and because of that throughout history changed its holder, to this day divided between the Republic of Finland and the Russian Republic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Karelian uprising</span> Failed 1921-1922 attempt by ethnic Finns to secede from USSR

The East Karelian Uprising and the Soviet–Finnish conflict 1921–1922 were an attempt by a group of East Karelian separatists to gain independence from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. They were aided by a number of Finnish volunteers, starting from 6 November 1921. The conflict ended on 21 March 1922 with the Agreements between the governments of Soviet Russia and Finland about the measures of maintenance of the inviolability of the Soviet–Finnish border. The conflict is regarded in Finland as one of the heimosodat – "Kinship Wars".

The timeline of the Winter War is a chronology of events leading up to, culminating in, and resulting from the Winter War. The war began when the Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939 and it ended 13 March 1940.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deportations of the Ingrian Finns</span> Ethnic cleansing and genocide in the Soviet Union

Deportations of the Ingrian Finns were a series of mass deportations of the Ingrian Finnish population by Soviet authorities. Deportations took place from the late 1920s to the end of World War II. They were part of the Genocide of the Ingrian Finns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Karelian dialects</span> Group of dialects of Finnish

South Karelian dialects, Karelian dialects or Southeast Finnish dialects are Eastern Finnish dialects spoken in South Karelia, along with eastern parts of Kymenlaakso. Prior to the Winter War, the dialects were spoken along the Karelian Isthmus and Ingria. However, the South Karelian dialect speakers from the parts of Karelia taken by the Soviet Union were evacuated into the rest of Finland where their speech was assimilated into the new environment. Use of the Ingrian dialects is declining.

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Vehviläinen, Olli (2002). Finland in the Second World War: between Germany and Russia. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 104. ISBN   978-0-333-80149-9.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hannikainen, Lauri; Hanski, Raija; Rosas, Allan (1992). Implementing humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts: the case of Finland. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 87–88. ISBN   978-0-7923-1611-4.
  3. 1 2 Rautiainen, Mikko (2007). ”Sisaret tapaavat toisensa” Itä-Karjala ja Suur-Suomi-suunnitelmat neljässä suomalaisessa sanomalehdessä kesäkuusta joulukuuhun 1941 (PDF) (MA thesis) (in Finnish). University of Joensuu. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
  4. ↑ Trifonova, Anastassia (2005). Suur-Suomen aate ja Itä-Karjala (BA thesis) (in Finnish). University of Tartu. p. 61. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
  5. ↑ ""I will not sheath my sword before law and order reigns in the land, before all fortresses are in our hands, before the last soldier of Lenin is driven not only from Finland, but from White Sea Karelia as well."
  6. ↑ Mannerheim – Eastern Karelia
  7. ↑ Osmo Hyytiä, "Helmi Suomen maakuntien joukossa". Suomalainen Itä-Karjala 1941-1944, pg. 356
  8. ↑ Rautio (2002), p. 175
  9. ↑ "Etusivu". kansallisbiografia.fi. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Hannikainen et al. (1992), p. 88
  11. 1 2 3 Trifonova (2005), p. 65
  12. 1 2 Rautiainen (2007), p. 73
  13. ↑ Cartographica Neerlandica Topographical names for Ortelius Map No. 160
  14. 1 2 3 4 Trifonova (2005), p. 70
  15. 1 2 Trifonova (2005), pp. 70–71
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vehviläinen (2002), p. 105
  17. 1 2 3 4 Trifonova (2005), p. 66
  18. ↑ Trifonova (2005), p. 67
  19. ↑ Trifonova (2005), p. 68
  20. 1 2 Hannikainen et al. (1992), p. 90
  21. ↑ Vehviläinen (2002), p. 106
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Rautiainen (2007), p. 131
  23. ↑ Pohl, J. Otto (1999). Ethnic cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 22. ISBN   978-0-313-30921-2.
  24. ↑ Pohl (1999), pp. 22–24
  25. ↑ Hannikainen et al. (1992), p. 97
  26. 1 2 Hannikainen et al. (1992), p. 98
  27. ↑ Rautio (2002), p. 179
  28. ↑ "The occupiers set in Karelia the network of concentration, transfer and labor camps where over 20 thousand of locals were placed. Thousands of them died"
    ""Равнение на Победу" (Eyes toward Victory), the Republic of Karelia" (in Russian). the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, National Delphi Council of Russia. Archived from the original on 2 November 2005. Retrieved 10 August 2006.
  29. 1 2 Laine, Antti: Suur-Suomen kahdet kasvot, 1982, ISBN   951-1-06947-0, Otava
  30. ↑ Rautiainen (2007), p. 9
  31. ↑ Rautiainen (2007), p. 13
  32. ↑ Manninen, O. (1980), Suur-Suomen ääriviivat, p. 151, ISBN   951-26-1735-8
  33. ↑ Rautiainen (2007), p. 128
  34. ↑ Rautiainen (2007), p. 129

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.