Food security in Mexico

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Flag of Mexico Flag of Mexico.svg
Flag of Mexico

Mexico has sought to ensure food security through its history. Yet, despite various efforts, Mexico continues to lack national food and nutrition strategies that secure food security for the people. As a large country of more than 100 million people, planning and executing social policies are complex tasks. Although Mexico has been expanding its food and nutrition programs that have been expected, and to some degree, have contributed to increases in health and nutrition, food security, particularly as it relates to obesity and malnutrition, still remains a relevant public health problem. [1] Although food availability is not the issue, severe deficiencies in the accessibility of food contribute to insecurity.

Contents

Between 2003 and 2005, the total Mexican food supply was well above the level sufficient to meet the requirement of the Mexican population, averaging 3,270 kilocalories per daily capita, which is higher than the minimum requirements of 1,850 kilocalories per daily capita. However, at least 10 percent of the population in every Mexican state suffers from inadequate food access. In nine states, 25–35 percent live in food-insecure households. More than 10 percent of the population of seven Mexican states falls into the category of Serious Food Insecurity. [2]

The issue of food inaccessibility is magnified by chronic child malnutrition, as well as obesity in children, adolescents, and families. [3]

Mexico is vulnerable to drought, which can cripple agriculture. [4]

Introduction

The multifaceted nature of food security includes the combination of four elements: [5]

Food insecurity is a situation of limited or uncertain availability or ability to acquire safe and nutritious foods. [5] It has been associated with negative impacts on human development such as increased poverty and inequality and with adverse health outcomes such as increased risk of being obese. [7] Food insecurity has also been correlated with poor economic growth. [8]

Map of the states of Mexico States of Mexico.png
Map of the states of Mexico

In Mexico, differences in parts of the country are caused by factors such as socioeconomic status and urban/rural residence. [9] [10] [11] The North region is the most industrialized, has a high per capital income and infrastructure, and has sufficient access to basic services. [1] Although less developed than the North, the Central region still consists of large developed cities like Guadalajara. [1] The South region is the least developed, has the most rural and indigenous inhabitants in Mexico, and has insufficient access to basic services. [1] Therefore, health issues like infectious diseases and undernutrition are especially prevalent.

History

Starting in the 1980s, various economic reforms changed productive sectors in Latin America. The Mexican agricultural sector, in particular, was affected when the state of Mexico began advocating for an export policy. The Mexican government undertook more radical attempts to restructure policy to further involve the agricultural sector into the global market such as joining the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). [12]

Furthermore, as a result of the 2008 global financial crisis, Mexico's economic activity declined. Mexico's gross domestic product (GDP) fell sharply, and its economy shrank by 6-7% in 2009. [13] Its food poverty rate increased rapidly, from 13.8% in 2006 to 18.2% in 2010, reversing the declining trend of food poverty since 1996. [14] With the increase in food prices and decline in income, food security increased, and the social impact of the financial crisis had a larger effect among the poorest and most vulnerable groups. [15]

Corn in Mexico Corn, Mexico.jpg
Corn in Mexico

As Mexico moves towards more open markets in agricultural trade, land, and water with NAFTA and the reprivatization of land, it faces an unknown economic future. [16]

Food availability

The supply of available food energy in Mexico goes beyond the requirements, but a great number of people still suffer from food insecurities. Moreover, the probability of being food insecure has been reported to decrease with increasing income. [17] Amartya Sen argues that ownership of food is one of the most primitive property rights. However, even when food supplies are sufficient, there can be food insecurity. [18]

Between 2003 and 2005, the total Mexican food supply was sufficient, averaging 3,270 kilocalories per daily capita, higher than the minimum requirements of 1,850 kilocalories per daily capita. [19] : 3  The National Survey of Wholesale, Food and Nutritional Status in Rural Areas (ENAAEN) data gathered in 2008 for 90 rural areas found that more than 90% of localities in these areas sold foods such as dry beans, chick peas, dairy and meat, 86.7% sold vegetables, and 78.9% sold fruit. This data results in the conclusion that food availability is not the problem; rather, the issue of food insecurity is caused by an interplay of other factors. [19]

Furthermore, more than 18% of the Mexican population in 2008 was in food poverty with Chiapas, Guerrero, and Oaxaca being the states with the most severe food poverty, according to a CONEVAL analysis. [19] The vulnerability and dependence on food price increases is higher for the lower income deciles.

Rack with Mexican-brand snack food at a convenience store near Estadio Azteca in Mexico City SnackfoodRackDF.JPG
Rack with Mexican-brand snack food at a convenience store near Estadio Azteca in Mexico City

According to Mexico's National Public Health Institute, few households meet what the guidelines for an adequate and diverse diet [19] : 9  For indigenous populations, the problem is worse. Only 10% of the non-indigenous rural population and 3% of the rural indigenous population consume meat three or more days per week, pointing to the prevalence of anemia in the population. [19] : 9 

Dietary concerns

In 2013, Mexico was ranked fourth globally and first in Latin America in per capita spending on ultra-processed foods and drinks. [20]

Factors of food insecurity

Malnutrition

Adequate nutrition and food are fundamental for human survival, health, and growth. [21] Malnutrition contributes to maternal and infant mortality and morbidity and diminishes development. Childhood malnutrition could be pointed to as a consequence of inequity in the distribution of resources, services, wealth, and opportunities. [21]

In Mexico, although the prevalence of malnutrition has been decreasing, it continues to be a health issue where policies aimed at reducing food poverty have not been effective. [22] 13.5% of children under five still suffer from chronic undernutrition and nearly 35 thousand have lost their lives because of this problem.

Chronic malnutrition is much more prevalent in the south and rural areas than in the north and in urban ones. [19] [23] The indigenous population in Mexico faces a significantly more severe situation. For instance, over 33% of children under five suffer from chronic malnutrition, which trumps the national average. [19] : 2 

Obesity

Chart that shows the percentage of total population (aged 15 and above) with a body mass index greater than 30, compiled or collected from 1996 to 2003 Obesity country comparison - text.svg
Chart that shows the percentage of total population (aged 15 and above) with a body mass index greater than 30, compiled or collected from 1996 to 2003

Mexico has experienced a dramatic increase in wealth in recent decades, bringing a significant shift in socio-economic status and a geographical shift from rural to urban. This transformation has brought about harmful dietary patterns: increased access to low-priced highly energy-dense foods and an increase in sedentary behavior. As a result, Mexico is witnessing a rapidly growing epidemic of obesity and obesity related non-communicable diseases. [24]

The main factors to which the rise in obesity have been attributed to are the increase in the consumption of hyper-caloric foods that are rich in fat, salt, and sugar and poor in important nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and fiber as well as the decrease in physical activity. [21]

The dramatic increase in obesity rates has resulted in higher rates of obesity-related diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and an increase in related healthcare costs. [24] [25] 32% of men and 26% of women were said to be of normal weight. It is estimated that by 2050, 12% of men and 9% of women will be of normal weight. Economically, this will be a large burden. It is estimated that a 1% reduction in BMI could save 43 million $US in healthcare costs in 2020 and 85 million $US in 2050. [24] Therefore, it is important that measures be taken for the prevention of obesity.

Government efforts

In 1997, the Mexican government started a new program aimed at relieving extreme poverty in the country. [26] Programa de Educación, Salud, y Alimenación (PROGRESA) was initially implemented for poor households in rural areas, but due to its success, it was expanded to urban areas in 2001. [27] Around 2.6 million families participated by 2000, including a third of all rural families. [28] The program involved a cash reward for families that undertook actions to improve the health and nutritional status of their household. [29] The program was relatively successful: attendance in secondary school increased by more than 20% for girls and 10% for boys in PROGRESA households. [29]

The National Crusade against Hunger (CNCH) started in 2013 and was implemented by the federal government through the Secretariat of Social Development (SEDESOL). Its objective included "massively abolishing poverty, undernutrition, and food deprivation resulting from lack of access to food in Mexico." According to the CONEVAL, the CNCH has reached 7.1 million Mexicans. It includes interventions run by 55 preexisting programs in the fields of health and nutrition services, food production and distribution, and social and educational development, among others. The two participants with the largest budgets in 2013 were the Opportunidades Program and the Ministry of Health. The CNCH campaign started in 400 municipalities with the highest numbers and percentages of people living in conditions of extreme poverty and food insecurity. Its initial three priorities were boosting food supply and provision actions, increasing the number of families with access to money transfers and food supplements, and increasing the capacity of the population for acquiring food. [30]

Some studies report that households receiving cash transfers and enrolled in social health insurance were not protected against food insecurity during the 2008 crisis. [31] However, the program that provided cash grants to the elderly population (i.e. above 70 years old) did protect households against food insecurity. [31]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food security</span> Measure of the availability and accessibility of food

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender or religion is another element of food security. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food-secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malnutrition</span> Medical condition

Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues and form. Malnutrition is not receiving the correct amount of nutrition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stunted growth</span> Reduced growth rate in human development

Stunted growth, also known as stunting or linear growth failure, is defined as impaired growth and development manifested by low height-for-age. It is a primary manifestation of malnutrition and recurrent infections, such as diarrhea and helminthiasis, in early childhood and even before birth, due to malnutrition during fetal development brought on by a malnourished mother. The definition of stunting according to the World Health Organization (WHO) is for the "height-for-age" value to be less than two standard deviations of the median of WHO Child Growth Standards. Stunted growth is usually associated with poverty, unsanitary environmental conditions, maternal undernutrition, frequent illness, and/or inappropriate feeding practice and care during early years of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein–energy malnutrition</span> Medical condition

Protein–energy undernutrition (PEU), once called protein-energy malnutrition (PEM), is a form of malnutrition that is defined as a range of conditions arising from coincident lack of dietary protein and/or energy (calories) in varying proportions. The condition has mild, moderate, and severe degrees.

Nutrition transition is the shift in dietary consumption and energy expenditure that coincides with economic, demographic, and epidemiological changes. Specifically the term is used for the transition of developing countries from traditional diets high in cereal and fiber to more Western-pattern diets high in sugars, fat, and animal-source food.

Obesity in Mexico is a relatively recent phenomenon, having been widespread since the 1980s with the introduction of ultra-processed food into much of the Mexican food market. Prior to that, dietary issues were limited to under and malnutrition, which is still a problem in various parts of the country. Following trends already ongoing in other parts of the world, Mexicans have been foregoing the traditional Mexican diet high in whole grains, fruits, legumes and vegetables in favor of a diet with more animal products and ultra-processed foods. It has seen dietary energy intake and rates of overweight and obese people rise with seven out of ten at least overweight and a third clinically obese.

Nutritional anthropology is the study of the interplay between human biology, economic systems, nutritional status and food security. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development for any given group of people.

Despite India's 50% increase in GDP since 2013, more than one third of the world's malnourished children live in India. Among these, half of the children under three years old are underweight.

Ecuador has a comprehensive publicly funded health system and national health insurance. Free medical care is available to all residents regardless of income, and without buying any type of medical insurance. An extensive and proactive program for public health includes actions such as teams of nurses going door-to-door offering influenza vaccines to residents. Isolated rural areas are also served by this system, as physicians, dentists, and nurses are obliged to perform one year of "rural service" in these communities. This service is mandatory for professional licensing in Ecuador.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food security in Ethiopia</span> Overview of food security in Ethiopia

Food security is defined, according to the World Food Summit of 1996, as existing "when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life". This commonly refers to people having "physical and economic access" to food that meets both their nutritional needs and food preferences. Today, Ethiopia faces high levels of food insecurity, ranking as one of the hungriest countries in the world, with an estimated 5.2 million people needing food assistance in 2010. Ethiopia was ranked 92 in the world in Global Hunger Index 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidemiology of malnutrition</span> Overview of global nutritional deficiencies

There were 795 million undernourished people in the world in 2014, a decrease of 216 million since 1990, despite the fact that the world already produces enough food to feed everyone—7 billion people—and could feed more than that—12 billion people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hunger in the United States</span> Food insecurity

Hunger in the United States of America affects millions of Americans, including some who are middle class, or who are in households where all adults are in work. The United States produces far more food than it needs for domestic consumption—hunger within the U.S. is caused by some Americans having insufficient money to buy food for themselves or their families. Additional causes of hunger and food insecurity include neighborhood deprivation and agricultural policy. Hunger is addressed by a mix of public and private food aid provision. Public interventions include changes to agricultural policy, the construction of supermarkets in underserved neighborhoods, investment in transportation infrastructure, and the development of community gardens. Private aid is provided by food pantries, soup kitchens, food banks, and food rescue organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social determinants of health in Mexico</span> Factors influencing health in Mexico

Social determinants of health in Mexico are factors that influence the status of health among certain populations in Mexico. These factors consist of circumstances in which people grow, live, work, and age, as well as the systems put in place to deal with illnesses.

Malnutrition is a condition that affects bodily capacities of an individual, including growth, pregnancy, lactation, resistance to illness, and cognitive and physical development. Malnutrition is commonly used in reference to undernourishment, or a condition in which an individual's diet does not include sufficient calories and proteins to sustain physiological needs, but it also includes overnourishment, or the consumption of excess calories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Undernutrition in children</span> Medical condition affecting children

Undernutrition in children, occurs when children do not consume enough calories, protein, or micronutrients to maintain good health. It is common globally and may result in both short and long term irreversible adverse health outcomes. Undernutrition is sometimes used synonymously with malnutrition, however, malnutrition could mean both undernutrition or overnutrition. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that malnutrition accounts for 54 percent of child mortality worldwide, which is about 1 million children. Another estimate, also by WHO, states that childhood underweight is the cause for about 35% of all deaths of children under the age of five worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food security in the Central Valley, California</span> Widespread issue where most of the nations agriculture is produced

Food security in the Central Valley, California, United states is a widespread issue. The Central Valley is where most of the state's and the nation's agriculture is produced. Despite this, many people living and working in the valley's agriculture industry are food insecure in some way, with contributing factors including lack of food sources, lack of healthy food choices, or income barriers. About a third of many Central Valley counties' populations were documented as food insecure in 2009. Due to the lack of healthy food choices, high rates of obesity have also been found in the Central Valley.

The Food Justice Movement is a grassroots initiative which emerged in response to food insecurity and economic pressures that prevent access to healthy, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods. The food justice movement moves beyond increasing food availability and works to address the root cause of unequal access to adequate nutrition. Like other Environmental Justice initiatives, the Food Justice Movement advocates for rights-based solutions that identify the underlying human rights that allow individuals to achieve adequate food security and nutrition. This differs from policy-based solutions that focus on food availability and affordability by increasing food production or lowering the cost of food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food deserts by country</span>

This is a list of food desert issues and solutions by country.

John Hoddinott, is a Canadian economist and the Howard Edward Babcock Professor of Food, Nutrition and Public Policy at Cornell University. In 2002–2015, Hoddinott was a Deputy Division Director at the International Food Policy Research Institute. Since 1997, he has been a research associate at the Centre for the Study of African Economies at the University of Oxford. Hoddinott received his DPhil in 1989 from Oxford University.

Hunger in Bangladesh is one of the major issues that affects the citizens of Bangladesh. The nation state of Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world and home for more than 160 million people. It progresses immensely in the Human Development Index, particularly in the areas of literacy and life expectancy, but economic inequality has increased and about 32% of the population, that is 50 million people, still live in extreme poverty.

References

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  2. ↑ "Food Security and Nutrition in Mexico" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 September 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  3. ↑ Urquía-Fernández, Nuria (2014). "Food security in Mexico". Salud Pública de México. 56: s92–s98. PMID   25649459. Archived from the original on 2017-09-27. Retrieved 2017-09-27.
  4. ↑ Appendini, Kirsten; Liverman, Diana (1994). "Agricultural policy, climate change and food security in Mexico". Food Policy. 19 (2): 149–64. doi:10.1016/0306-9192(94)90067-1.
  5. 1 2 "Chapter 2. Food security: concepts and measurement". www.fao.org. Food and Agriculture Organization . Retrieved October 23, 2017.
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  8. ↑ Verpoorten, Marijke; Arora, Abhimanyu; Stoop, Nik; Swinnen, Johan (2013-04-01). "Self-reported food insecurity in Africa during the food price crisis" (PDF). Food Policy. 39 (Supplement C): 51–63. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.12.006. hdl:10419/74970.
  9. ↑ Dean T. Jamison Joel G. Breman Anthony R. Measham George Alleyne Mariam Claeson David B. Evans Prabhat Jha Anne Mills Philip Musgrove (2006-04-02). Jamison, Dean T; Breman, Joel G; Measham, Anthony R; Alleyne, George; Claeson, Mariam; Evans, David B; Jha, Prabhat; Mills, Anne; Musgrove, Philip (eds.). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (Second ed.). The World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-6179-5. ISBN   9780821361795.
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  13. ↑ Caribbean, Economic Commission for Latin America and the (2014-12-19). Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean 2009 (in Spanish). CEPAL. ISBN   9789213233887 . Retrieved 2017-11-06.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ Urquía-Fernández, Nuria (2013). "Food security in Mexico". Salud Pública de México. 56: s92–s98. PMID   25649459. Archived from the original on 2017-09-27. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  15. ↑ Habib, Bilal; et al. (2010). "The Impact of the Financial Crisis on Poverty and Income Distribution: Insights from Simulations in Selected Countries" (PDF). The World Bank.
  16. ↑ Appendini, Kirsten; Liverman, Diana (1994-04-01). "Agricultural policy, climate change and food security in Mexico". Food Policy. Special Issue: Climate change and world food security. 19 (2): 149–164. doi:10.1016/0306-9192(94)90067-1.
  17. ↑ Gundersen, C.; Kreider, B.; Pepper, J. (2011-09-01). "The Economics of Food Insecurity in the United States". Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. 33 (3): 281–303. doi:10.1093/aepp/ppr022. ISSN   2040-5790.
  18. ↑ Sen, Amartya (1981). Poverty and famines: an essay on entitlement and deprivation . Oxford university press. ISBN   978-0-19-828426-0.
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  20. ↑ Shamah-Levy, Teresa; Mundo-Rosas, Verónica; Flores-De la Vega, María Margarita; Luiselli-Fernández, Cassio (1 September 2017). "Food security governance in Mexico: How can it be improved?". Global Food Security. 14: 73–78. doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2017.05.004.
  21. 1 2 3 Nasu, Teresa Shamah Levy, Maritza Alejandra Amaya Castellanos, Lucia Cuevas. "Desnutrición y obesidad: doble carga en México". www.revista.unam.mx. Retrieved 2017-11-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Salvador, Laura Martínez. "Food Security, Self-Sufficiency, and the Availability of Amaranth in Mexico". probdes.iiec.unam.mx. Retrieved 2017-11-06.
  23. ↑ "Nutrition country profiles: Mexico summary". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
  24. 1 2 3 Rtveladze, Ketevan; Marsh, Tim; Barquera, Simon; Romero, Luz Maria Sanchez; Levy, David; Melendez, Guillermo; Webber, Laura; Kilpi, Fanny; McPherson, Klim (January 2014). "Obesity prevalence in Mexico: impact on health and economic burden". Public Health Nutrition. 17 (1): 233–239. doi: 10.1017/S1368980013000086 . ISSN   1368-9800. PMC   10282205 . PMID   23369462.
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  28. ↑ "The Impact of PROGRESA on Health in Mexico | The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab". www.povertyactionlab.org. Retrieved 2017-10-24.
  29. 1 2 Gantner, Leigh (2007). "PROGRESA: An Integrated Approach to Poverty Alleviation in Mexico". cip.cornell.edu. Cornell University . Retrieved 2017-10-24.
  30. ↑ "Balance de la Cruzada Nacional contra el Hambre" (PDF) (in Spanish). National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy. 2016.
  31. 1 2 Vilar-Compte, Mireya; Sandoval-Olascoaga, Sebastian; Bernal-Stuart, Ana; Shimoga, Sandhya; Vargas-Bustamante, Arturo (November 2015). "The impact of the 2008 financial crisis on food security and food expenditures in Mexico: a disproportionate effect on the vulnerable". Public Health Nutrition. 18 (16): 2934–2942. doi:10.1017/S1368980014002493. ISSN   1368-9800. PMC   4534333 . PMID   25428800.
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