Frank Hawthorne

Last updated

Frank Hawthorne
CC FRSC
Frank C. Hawthorne 2014.jpg
Hawthorne in 2007
Born
Frank Christopher Hawthorne

(1946-01-08) 8 January 1946 (age 78)
Bristol, England
Alma mater Imperial College London
McMaster University
Awards Order of Canada
Roebling Medal (2013)
Scientific career
Fields Mineralogy and crystallography
Institutions University of Manitoba
Website frankhawthorne.com

Frank Christopher Hawthorne CC FRSC (born 8 January 1946) is an English-born Canadian mineralogist, crystallographer and spectroscopist. He works at the University of Manitoba and is currently distinguished professor emeritus. By combining graph theory, bond-valence theory [1] and the moments approach to the electronic energy density of solids [2] he has developed bond topology [3] [4] as a rigorous approach to understanding the atomic arrangements, chemical compositions and paragenesis of complex oxide and oxysalt minerals.

Contents

Formal education

Frank C. Hawthorne was born in Bristol, England, on 8 January 1946, to Audrey Patricia (née Miles) and Frank Hawthorne, and went to Begbrook Primary School (now Begbrook Primary Academy) and Bishop Road Primary School, Bristol. In 1956, he moved to Maidenhead, Berkshire, and went to Maidenhead County Boys School (later Maidenhead Grammar School, now Desborough College) where he focused on Mathematics, Physics and Geography, played rugby, hockey, cricket, and did athletics (track and field). He was captured by Physical Geography and at the age of 15, decided to become a geologist. He played rugby for Thames Valley (later Maidenhead) Rugby Club and cricket for the village of Cookham Dean. From late 1962 onward, he was exposed to early English rock-and-roll at pubs and clubs on the periphery of London and became a lifelong enthusiast of this form of music. In 1964, he entered Imperial College London to study Pure Geology, play rugby, hockey and cricket, and drink the occasional pint of beer. He became interested in hard-rock geology and his B.Sc. thesis work, 3 months on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, convinced him that this was a good career choice. He graduated in 1968 and went to McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, to do a Ph.D. under the supervision of the crystallographer H. Douglas Grundy. Doug Grundy have him an amphibole to "look at", and this look developed into his Ph.D. thesis on the crystal chemistry of the amphiboles. McMaster University has a Materials Research Institute [5] that was situated in the Senior Science Building together with the Departments of Geology, Chemistry and Physics. Everyone took coffee and lunch together in an atmosphere that was scientifically intoxicating for graduate students; all the disciplines mixed together and discussed science every day. The institute gave Hawthorne the opportunity for both hands-on use of single-crystal X-ray diffraction, single-crystal neutron diffraction, infrared spectroscopy and Mössbauer spectroscopy, and for making the acquaintance of prominent scientists. In particular, he met the physicist I. David Brown [6] and the chemist R.D. Shannon [7] (on sabbatical from DuPont) when they were developing Bond-Valence Theory. [8] This theory went on to play a major role in Hawthorne's work and he became lifelong friends with Brown and Shannon.

Career and informal education

Frank Hawthorne graduated with a Ph.D. in 1973 and went on to a post-doctoral position with Professor Robert B. Ferguson in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. This was another important step in his development as it exposed him to a wide variety of minerals from granitic pegmatites, particularly through the influence of Petr Černý, and he worked on a wide variety of pegmatite minerals with Černý and Ferguson, returning several times a year to the Materials Research Institute at McMaster University to collect single-crystal X-ray data (at no cost). At the end of his post-doctoral fellowship, he became a Research Associate, operating the electron microprobe and lecturing for other faculty members when they went on sabbatical leave. After seven years of this rather precarious existence, he secured a University Research Fellowship [9] in 1980, the first year of that program. The Federal Government recognized that there were few academic jobs available in the 1970s and introduced the URF program whereby a recipient received a salary and a modest research grant to act as a faculty member (lecture and do research) for 5 years. If at the end of this time, the URF was hired as a faculty member by the university, the salary was paid in part by the Federal Government over the next 5 years. In 1983, Frank Hawthorne received a Major Equipment Grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for a Single-Crystal Diffractometer and began to build his laboratory and have graduate students. At this time, Hawthorne established connections with the Royal Ontario Museum as a source of crystals for minerals of unknown structure, and accompanied staff (Dr. Fred J. Wicks [10] and Terri Ottaway) [11] to the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show where he connected with mineral collectors and dealers who were to become the principal source of crystals for his experimental work. In 1983, he was invited to give a lecture at the University of Pavia. This began one of the major scientific collaborations of his career with Drs. Roberta Oberti (it), [12] Luciano Ungaretti [13] and Giuseppi Rossi [14] on the crystal chemistry of amphiboles, and he has spent ~4 years in Italy working with them on crystal chemistry and with Giancarlo Della Ventura [15] in Rome on short-range order in amphiboles. In 1985, he went to the University of Chicago for 2 months to work with Joseph V. Smith [16] on the topology of four-connected three-dimensional nets. There he met the theoretical chemist Jeremy Burdett who introduced him to the moments approach to the electronic energy density of solids. This was pivotal for Hawthorne's ideas on structure as it connected the topology of chemical bonds with the energy of the constituent crystals.

In 2001, he was awarded a Tier I Canada Research Chair which relieved him of some of his undergraduate teaching and allowed him to attract another crystallographer, Dr. Elena Sokolova, [17] to the department, first as a Research Associate and later as a Research Professor. Dr. Sokolova has had a major influence on his ideas concerning crystal structure and also introduced him to the Crystallography-Mineralogy community in Russia. He obtained funding from the Federal Government of Canada to develop a large laboratory: several X-ray diffractometers, polarized infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, bulk- and milli-Mössbauer spectroscopy, electron microprobe and a micro-SIMS for Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, and formed a consortium with other local scientists for him and his students to have access to Magic-angle-Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Atomic Force Microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, all of which were used extensively to characterize minerals and geochemical processes.

Scientific work

Traditionally, Mineralogy has been an observational science: Mineralogists describe new minerals, measure the stability fields of known minerals with respect to intensive thermodynamic variables, solve and refine crystal structures, and attempt to develop empirical schemes of organization of this knowledge, and apply these schemes to problems in the Earth and Environmental Sciences. Most minerals are complex (sensu lato) objects from both structural and chemical perspectives. On the one hand, this makes a quantitative theoretical understanding of the factors controlling structure, chemical composition and occurrence difficult to impossible by established theoretical methods in Physics and Chemistry. On the other hand, the more complicated a mineral, for example, veblenite: KNa(H2O)3[(Fe2+5Fe3+4Mn2+6Ca□)(OH)10(Nb4O4{Si2O7}2(Si8O22)2)O2], [18] the more information it contains about its origin and properties. The principal thrust of Hawthorne's work has been to establish the theoretical underpinnings of more rigorous approach to Mineralogy. The patterns of linkage of chemical bonds in space contain significant energetic information that may be used for this purpose. Bond Topology combines aspects of Graph Theory, Bond-Valence Theory, [1] and the moments approach to the electronic-energy density-of-states [2] to interpret topological aspects of crystal structure, and allows consideration of many issues of crystal structure, mineral composition, and mineral behavior that are not addressed by established methods.

Theoretical work

Bond topology as a theoretical basis for Mineralogy

Using Graph Theory, the topological characteristics of a bond network may be represented as a weighted chromatic digraph of coordination polyhedra and their connectivities. The elements of the adjacency matrix of this graph form a permutation group that is a subgroup of the symmetric group SN (where N is the number of unique off-diagonal elements of the adjacency matrix), and one may use counting theorems (e.g., Pólya enumeration theorem) to enumerate all edge sets (linkages between polyhedra) that are distinct, thereby counting all distinct local arrangements of coordination polyhedra. [19] [20] This approach allows all topologically possible local arrangements to be enumerated for specific sets of coordination polyhedra. Infinite arrangements with translational symmetry may be represented by finite graphs via wrapping and extends this method to crystals. [21] Work by the late Jeremy Burdett showed that the electronic energy density of states can be derived using the method of moments, and that the energy difference between two structures depends primarily on the first few disparate moments of their respective energy density of states [22] This leads to the following conclusions: (1) zero-order moments define chemical composition; (2) second-order moments define coordination numbers; (3) fourth- and sixth-order moments define local connectivity of coordination polyhedra; and (4) higher moments define medium- and long-range connectivity. [4] Using the moments approach, it may be shown that anion-coordination changes in chemical reactions quantitatively correlate with the reduced enthalpy of formation of the reactants from the product phases for some simple mineral reactions [3] and that changes in bond topology correlate with reduced enthalpy of formation for some simple hydrated phases [23]

Chemical reactions in minerals

Using the moments approach (see above), chemical reactions in minerals may be divided into two types: [4] (1) Continuous reactions in which bond topology is conserved; and (2) discontinuous reactions in which bond topology is not conserved. (1) For continuous reactions, thermal expansion and elastic compression must be accompanied by element substitutions that maintain commensurability between different components of the structure. Hence one can define from an atomistic perspective the qualitative changes caused by variation in temperature and pressure. Extensive experimental work [24] has shown that short-range order is ubiquitous in amphiboles and defines the chemical pathways by which these minerals respond to varying temperature and pressure. The theoretical developments that underpin this behaviour indicate that they should apply to all other anisodesmic minerals [25] (2) Minerals in which bond topology is not conserved in chemical reactions form the majority of mineral species, but are less quantitatively abundant; however, they form the majority of the environmentally relevant minerals. The criteria that control the chemical composition and stability of these minerals at the atomic level may be derived from the valence-sum rule and valence-matching principle and much of this complexity can be quantitatively predicted reasonably well, [26] and species in aqueous solution also follow the valence-sum rule, and that their Lewis basicities scale with pH of the solution at maximum concentration of the species in solution [27] Complex species in aqueous solution actually form the building blocks of the crystallizing minerals, and hence the structures retain a record of the pH of the solutions from which they crystallized.

Structure hierarchy

A mathematical hierarchy is an ordered set of elements where the ordering reflects a natural hierarchical relation between the elements. The structure hierarchy hypothesis states that structures may be ordered hierarchically according to the polymerization of coordination polyhedra of higher bond valence. [20] Structure hierarchies have two functions: (1) they serve to organize our knowledge of minerals (crystal structures) in a coherent manner, and in this way relate to the original structure classifications of William Lawrence Bragg [28] and Nikolai Belov; [29] (2) if the basis of the classification involves factors that are related to the mechanistic details of the stability and behaviour of minerals, then the physical, chemical and paragenetic characteristics of minerals should arise as natural consequences of their crystal structures and the interaction of those structures with the environment in which they occur. The structure hierarchy hypothesis may be justified by considering a hypothetical structure-building process whereby higher bond-valence polyhedra polymerize to form the structural unit. This hypothetical structure-building process resembles our ideas of crystallization from an aqueous solution, whereby complexes in aqueous and hydrothermal solutions condense to form crystal structures, [27] or fragments of linked polyhedra in a magma condense to form a crystal. Although our knowledge of these processes is rather vague from a mechanistic perspective, the foundations of the structure hypothesis give us a framework within which to think about the processes of crystallization and dissolution [30] Structure hierarchies have been developed for several mineral families, e.g. borates, [31] uranyl oxides and oxysalts, [32] phosphate, [33] sulfate, [34] arsenate [35] and oxide-centered Cu, Pb and Hg minerals [36]

Experimental work

The role of hydrogen in crystal structures

Hydrogen was long considered a fairly unimportant component in minerals, particularly when present as "water of hydration". This view has now changed: the polar nature of hydrogen controls the dimensions of polymerization of strongly bonded oxyanions in crystal structures, [37] giving rise to cluster, chain, sheet and framework structures. Minerals forming in the core, mantle and deep crust do not incorporate so much hydrogen, and hydrogen is also far less polar at high pressures due to symmetrization of donor and acceptor bonds, and minerals generally crystallize as frameworks. Minerals forming in the shallow crust or at the Earth's surface have cluster, chain, sheet and framework structures in response to the constituent hydrogen.

Short-range order-disorder in rock-forming minerals

Long-Range Order (LRO) describes the tendency for atoms to order at a specific location in a structure, averaged over the whole crystal. Short-Range Order (SRO) is the tendency for atoms to locally cluster in arrangements that are discordant with random distribution. A local form of Bond-Valence Theory (i.e., NOT a mean-field approach) can be used to predict patterns of SRO [38] Infrared spectroscopy (IR) in the fundamental OH-stretching region is sensitive to both LRO and SRO of species bonded to OH, and one can combine Rietveld structure refinement and IR spectroscopy to derive patterns of SRO. [39] Thus H can act as a local probe of SRO in many complex rock-forming minerals. [25]

Light lithophile elements in rock-forming minerals

Light lithophile elements (LLEs) can be important variable components in several groups of rock-forming minerals that were thought either to be free of LLEs, or to contain stoichiometrically fixed amounts of these components. Systematic examination of these types of crystal-chemical issues using a combination of SREF (Site-occupancy REFinement), SIMS (Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry) and HLE (Hydrogen-Line Extraction) showed this not to be the case. [40] Of particular importance are the role of Li, Ti and H in amphiboles, [41] Li and H in staurolite [42] and Li in tourmaline [43] This work has resulted in much improved understanding of the crystal chemistry of these minerals, and the possibility for more realistic activity models for their thermodynamic treatment.

Crystal chemistry of amphibole-supergroup minerals

In 1987, Hawthorne began collaboration with Roberta Oberti, Luciano Ungaretti and Giuseppe Rossi in Pavia using large-scale crystal-structure refinement and electron-microprobe analysis of amphiboles to solve many crystal-chemical problems, e.g. [44] This work has had a major impact on the understanding of amphibole structure, chemical composition and occurrence [45] and resulted in a more comprehensive classification and nomenclature for these minerals [46]

Crystal chemistry of tourmaline-supergroup minerals

The tourmaline minerals rival the amphiboles in complexity, and were relatively neglected until twenty-five years ago.[ when? ] Hawthorne and his students began crystal-chemical work on these minerals and rapidly identified a new subgroup of tourmaline minerals, [47] showed that tourmaline has more complicated cation-ordering patterns than was hitherto thought, [48] and a new classification scheme for the tourmaline-supergroup minerals was approved by the International Mineralogical Association. [49] There has since[ when? ] been a major increase in tourmaline studies, turning it into a petrogenetically useful mineral.[ citation needed ]

Description of new minerals

Systematic work on the crystal chemistry of rock-forming minerals have led to the discovery many hitherto unrecognized types of chemical substitution, e.g. [50] The main interest with regard to rare accessory minerals is the opportunity to examine novel crystal structures in relation to the hierarchical organization of structural arrangements in general. Often by serendipity, this work has led to some very interesting findings [e.g., the discovery of thiosulphate in sidpietersite [51] and [C4-Hg2+4]4+ groups in mikecoxite [52] Hawthorne has been involved in the discovery of 180 new mineral species.

Honours

Bibliography

Journal articles

Books

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tourmaline</span> Cyclosilicate mineral group

Tourmaline is a crystalline silicate mineral group in which boron is compounded with elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a wide variety of colors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tremolite</span> Amphibole, double chain inosilicate mineral

Tremolite is a member of the amphibole group of silicate minerals with composition Ca2(Mg5.0-4.5Fe2+0.0-0.5)Si8O22(OH)2. Tremolite forms by metamorphism of sediments rich in dolomite and quartz, and occurs in two distinct forms, crystals and fibers. Tremolite forms a series with actinolite and ferro-actinolite. Pure magnesium tremolite is creamy white, but the color grades to dark green with increasing iron content. It has a hardness on Mohs scale of 5 to 6. Nephrite, one of the two minerals known as the gemstone jade, is a green crystalline variety of tremolite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birnessite</span> Manganese hydroxide mineral

Birnessite (nominally MnO2·nH2O), also known as δ-MnO2, is a hydrous manganese dioxide mineral with a chemical formula of Na0.7Ca0.3Mn7O14·2.8H2O. It is the main manganese mineral species at the Earth's surface, and commonly occurs as fine-grained, poorly crystallized aggregates in soils, sediments, grain and rock coatings (e.g., desert varnish), and marine ferromanganese nodules and crusts. It was discovered at Birness, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluor-buergerite</span>

Fluor-buergerite, originally named buergerite, is a mineral species belonging to the tourmaline group. It was first described for an occurrence in rhyolitic cavities near Mexquitic, San Luis Potosi, Mexico. It was approved as a mineral in 1966 by the IMA and named in honor of Martin J. Buerger (1903–1986), professor of mineralogy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It has also been reported from Minas Gerais, Brazil, and the Central Bohemia Region of the Czech Republic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moganite</span> Silica mineral, rare monoclinic polymorph of quartz

Moganite is an oxide mineral with the chemical formula SiO2 (silicon dioxide) that was discovered in 1976. It was initially described as a new form of silica from specimens found in the Barranco de Medio Almud, in the municipality of Mogán on the island of Gran Canaria, in the Canary Islands (Spain), receiving in a later work the name derived from this locality. In 1994 the International Mineralogical Association decided to disapprove it as a valid mineral, since it was considered indistinguishable from quartz. Subsequent studies allowed the IMA to rectify it in 1999, accepting it as a mineral species. It has the same chemical composition as quartz, but a different crystal structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Betafite</span> Mineral group

Betafite is a mineral group in the pyrochlore supergroup, with the chemical formula (Ca,U)2(Ti,Nb,Ta)2O6(OH). Betafite typically occurs as a primary mineral in granite pegmatites, rarely in carbonatites. Originally defined by the B-site atom Ti, the development of new nomenclature for mineral names led to modernization of the system for nomenclature of pyrochlore and betafite in order to further rationalize the naming process of this grouping of minerals. Only two of the mineral species that were formerly recognized as betafite are presently retained. They are oxyuranobetafite and oxycalciobetafite. The term betafite is now a synonym or varietal group name under the pyrochlore super group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">George R. Rossman</span> American mineralogist and professor (born 1944)

George R. Rossman is an American mineralogist and the Professor of Mineralogy at the California Institute of Technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluor-liddicoatite</span>

Fluor-liddicoatite is a rare member of the tourmaline group of minerals, elbaite subgroup, and the theoretical calcium endmember of the elbaite-fluor-liddicoatite series; the pure end-member has not yet been found in nature. Fluor-liddicoatite is indistinguishable from elbaite by X-ray diffraction techniques. It forms a series with elbaite and probably also with olenite. Liddiocoatite is currently a non-approved mineral name, but Aurisicchio et al. (1999) and Breaks et al. (2008) found OH-dominant species. Formulae are

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edenite</span> Amphibole, double chain inosilicate mineral

Edenite or edenitic hornblende is a double chain silicate mineral of the amphibole group with the general chemical composition NaCa2Mg5(Si7Al)O22(OH)2. Edenite is named for the locality of Edenville, Orange County, New York, where it was first described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kröhnkite</span> Rare copper sulfate mineral

Kröhnkite ( Na2Cu(SO4)2•2H2O ) is a rare copper sulfate mineral named after B. Kröhnke who first researched it. Kröhnkite may be replaced by Saranchinaite, the anhydrous form of the mineral, if heated to temperatures above 200 °C (392 °F).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluor-uvite</span>

Fluor-uvite is a tourmaline mineral with the chemical formula CaMg3(Al5Mg)(Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)3F. It is a rare mineral that is found in calcium rich contact metamorphic rocks with increased amounts of boron. Uvite is trigonal hexagonal, which means that it has three equal length axes at 120 degrees, all perpendicular to its fourth axis which has a different length. Uvite is part of the space group 3m. Uvite's hardness has been measured to be 7.5 on the Mohs hardness scale. The color of uvite widely varies, depending on the sample, but is mostly deep green or brown. In regard to uvite's optical properties, it is uniaxial (-) and anisotropic, meaning that the velocity of light in the mineral depends on the path that it takes. In plane polarized light, uvite is colorless to pale yellow and shows weak pleochroism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Povondraite</span>

Povondraite is a rare silicate mineral from the tourmaline group with formula: NaFe3+3(Fe3+4,Mg2)(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)3O. It is a dark brown to black nearly opaque mineral with a resinous to splendent luster. It crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system as equant, distorted prisms with trigonal pyramid terminations.

Bobfergusonite is a mineral with formula Na2Mn5FeAl(PO4)6. The mineral varies in color from green-brown to red-brown. It was discovered in 1986 in Manitoba, Canada, and named for Robert Bury Ferguson (1920–2015), a professor of geological sciences at the University of Manitoba. As of 2012, the mineral has only been found in Canada and Argentina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collinsite</span>

Collinsite is a mineral with chemical formula Ca
2(Mg,Fe2+
)(PO
4)
2•2H
2O. It was discovered in British Columbia, Canada, and formally described in 1927. It was named in honor of William Henry Collins (1878–1937), director of the Geological Survey of Canada. There are three varieties of the mineral: magnesian collinsite, zincian collinsite, and strontian collinsite. The crystal structure consists of polyhedral chains linked by weak hydrogen bonds.

Georgius Agricola is considered the 'father of mineralogy'. Nicolas Steno founded the stratigraphy, the geology characterizes the rocks in each layer and the mineralogy characterizes the minerals in each rock. The chemical elements were discovered in identified minerals and with the help of the identified elements the mineral crystal structure could be described. One milestone was the discovery of the geometrical law of crystallization by René Just Haüy, a further development of the work by Nicolas Steno and Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle. Important contributions came from some Saxon "Bergraths"/ Freiberg Mining Academy: Johann F. Henckel, Abraham Gottlob Werner and his students. Other milestones were the notion that metals are elements too and the periodic table of the elements by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. The overview of the organic bonds by Kekulé was necessary to understand the silicates, first refinements described by Bragg and Machatschki; and it was only possibly to understand a crystal structure with Dalton's atomic theory, the notion of atomic orbital and Goldschmidt's explanations. Specific gravity, streak and X-ray powder diffraction are quite specific for a Nickel-Strunz identifier. Nowadays, non-destructive electron microprobe analysis is used to get the empirical formula of a mineral. Finally, the International Zeolite Association (IZA) took care of the zeolite frameworks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gugiaite</span> Sorosilicate mineral

Gugiaite is a melilite mineral, named for the Chinese village of Gugia where it was first discovered. Its chemical formula is Ca2BeSi2O7. It occurs mostly in skarns with melanite adjacent to an alkali syenite and has no economic value. Its crystals are small tetragonal tablets with vitreous luster and perfect cleavage. It is colorless and transparent with a density of three. The mineral belongs to space group P421m and is strongly piezoelectric.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ferrogedrite</span> Amphibole, double chain inosilicate mineral

Ferrogedrite is an amphibole mineral with the complex chemical formula of ☐Fe2+2(Fe2+3Al2)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2. It is sodium and calcium poor, making it part of the magnesium-iron-manganese-lithium amphibole subgroup. Defined as less than 1.00 apfu (atoms per formula unit) of Na + Ca and consisting of greater than 1.00 apfu of (Mg, Fe2+, Mn2+, Li) separating it from the calcic-sodic amphiboles. It is related to anthophyllite amphibole and gedrite through coupled substitution of (Al, Fe3+) for (Mg, Fe2+, Mn) and Al for Si. and determined by the content of silicon in the standard cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rodney C. Ewing</span> American mineralogist and materials scientist

Rodney Charles Ewing was an American mineralogist and materials scientist whose research is focused on the properties of nuclear materials.

References

  1. 1 2 Brown, Ian David (1 September 2016). The Chemical Bond in Inorganic Chemistry: The Bond Valence Model (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198742951.001.0001. ISBN   9780198742951. OCLC   964646730. S2CID   92868801.[ page needed ]
  2. 1 2 Burdett, Jeremy K; Lee, Stephen; Sha, William C. (1984). "The method of moments and the energy levels of molecules and solids". Croatica Chemica Acta. 57 (5): 1193–1216. ISSN   0011-1643.
  3. 1 2 Hawthorne, Frank C. (27 September 2012). "A bond-topological approach to theoretical mineralogy: crystal structure, chemical composition and chemical reactions". Physics and Chemistry of Minerals . 39 (10): 841–874. Bibcode:2012PCM....39..841H. doi: 10.1007/s00269-012-0538-4 . S2CID   97959636.
  4. 1 2 3 Hawthorne, Frank C. (April 2015). "Toward theoretical mineralogy: a bond-topological approach". American Mineralogist . 100 (4): 696–713. Bibcode:2015AmMin.100..696H. doi:10.2138/am-2015-5114.
  5. ↑ "Home Page". Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
  6. ↑ Kampf, Anthony R.; Cooper, Mark A.; Rossman, George R.; Nash, Barbara P.; Hawthorne, Frank C.; Marty, Joe (3 September 2019). "Davidbrownite-(NH4), (NH4,K)5(V5+O)2(C2O4)[PO2.75(OH)1.25]4·3H2O, a new phosphate-oxalate mineral from the Rowley mine, Arizona, USA". Mineralogical Magazine . 83 (6): 869–877. Bibcode:2019MinM...83..869K. doi:10.1180/mgm.2019.56. S2CID   202917386.
  7. ↑ Sokolova, E.; Cámara, F.; Abdu, Y.A.; Hawthorne, F.C.; Horváth, L.; Pfenninger-Horváth, E. (2 January 2018). "Bobshannonite, Na2KBa(Mn,Na)8(Nb,Ti)4(Si2O7)4O4(OH)4(O,F)2, a new titanium-silicate mineral from Mt. Saint-Hilaire, Québec, Canada: Description and crystal structure". Mineralogical Magazine . 79 (7): 1791–1811. doi:10.1180/minmag.2015.079.7.06. hdl: 2318/1564796 . S2CID   101428841.
  8. ↑ Brown, I.D.; Shannon, R.D. (1973). "Empirical bond-strength–bond-length curves from oxides". Acta Crystallographica . 29 (A29): 266–282. Bibcode:1973AcCrA..29..266B. doi:10.1107/S0567739473000689. S2CID   98268015.
  9. ↑ Kavanagh, Robert J. (1987). "The NSERC Program of University Research Fellowships" (PDF). The Canadian Journal of Higher Education. XVII-2 (2): 59–77. doi:10.47678/cjhe.v17i2.183015.
  10. ↑ Sturman, B.D.; Peacor, D.R.; Dunn, P.J. (1 August 1981). "Wicksite, a new mineral from northeastern Yukon Territory". Canadian Mineralogist. 19 (31): 377–380. S2CID   132336415.
  11. ↑ Ottaway, Terri. "Terri Ottaway CV". LinkedIn .
  12. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Cooper, Mark A.; Grice, Joel D. [in German]; Ottolini, Luisa (2000). "A new anhydrous amphibole from the Eifel region, Germany: Description and crystal structure of obertiite, NaNa2(Mg3Fe3+Ti4+)Si8O22O2". American Mineralogist . 85 (1): 236–241. Bibcode:2000AmMin..85..236H. doi:10.2138/am-2000-0124. S2CID   101423309.
  13. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Oberti, Roberta [in Italian]; Cannillo, Elio; Sardone, Nicola; Zanetti, Alberto; Grice, Joel D. [in German]; Ashley, Paul M. (1 February 1995). "A new anhydrous amphibole from the Hoskins mine, Grenfell, New South Wales, Australia: Description and crystal structure of ungarettiite, NaNa2(Mn2+2Mn3+3)Si8O22O2". American Mineralogist . 80 (1–21): 65–172. doi:10.2138/am-1995-1-216. S2CID   99185906.
  14. ↑ Della Ventura, Giancarlo; Parodi, Gian Carlo; Mottana, Annibale; Chaussidon, Marc (1993). "Peprossiite-(Ce), a new mineral from Campagnano (Italy): the first anhydrous rare-earth-element borate". European Journal of Mineralogy . 5 (1): 53–58. Bibcode:1993EJMin...5...53V. doi:10.1127/ejm/5/1/0053. S2CID   133406414.
  15. ↑ Tait, Kimberly T.; Hawthorne, Frank C.; Grice, Joel D. [in German]; Ottolini Luisa; Nayak, V.K. (2005). "Dellaventuraite, NaNa2(MgMn3+2Ti4+Li)Si8O22O2, a new anhydrous amphibole from the Kajlidongri Manganese Mine, Jhabua District, Madhya Pradesh, India". American Mineralogist . 90 (2–3): 304–309. Bibcode:2005AmMin..90..304T. doi:10.2138/am.2005.1659. S2CID   97885011.
  16. ↑ Wyllie, Peter J. (February 2007). "Joseph V. Smith, 1928-2007". Mineralogical Magazine . 71 (1): 113–119. Bibcode:2007MinM...71..113W. doi: 10.1180/S0026461X00007453 . S2CID   131389320.
  17. ↑ Pautov, L.A.; Agakhanov, A.A.; Bekenova, G.K. (2006). "Sokolovaite CsLi2AlSi4O10F2 - a new mineral species of the mica group". New Data on Minerals. 41: 5–13.
  18. ↑ Cámara, F.; Sokolova, E; Hawthorne, F.C.; Rowe, R.; Grice, J.D. [in German]; Tait, K.T. (2013). "Veblenite, K2_2Na(Fe2+5 Fe3+4 Mn2+7_)Nb3Ti(Si2O7)2 (Si8O22)2O6(OH)10(H2O)3, a new mineral from Seal Lake, Newfoundland and Labrador: mineral description, crystal structure, and a new veblenite (Si8O22) ribbon". Mineralogical Magazine . 77 (7): 2955–2974. doi:10.1180/minmag.2013.077.7.06. hdl: 2318/142931 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C. (1983). "Graphical enumeration of polyhedral clusters". Acta Crystallographica . A39 (5): 724–736. Bibcode:1983AcCrA..39..724H. doi:10.1107/S0108767383001452. S2CID   96967197.
  20. 1 2 Hawthorne, Frank C. (August 2014). "The Structure Hierarchy Hypothesis". Mineralogical Magazine . 78 (4): 957–1027. Bibcode:2014MinM...78..957H. doi:10.1180/minmag.2014.078.4.13. S2CID   101776945.
  21. ↑
  22. ↑ Burdett, Jeremy K. (1987). "Some structural problems examined using the method of moments". Structure and Bonding . 65: 29–90. doi:10.1007/BFB0004458. ISBN   3-540-17581-4. S2CID   172564174.
  23. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Sokolova, Elena (16 July 2012). "The role of H2O in controlling bond topology: The [6]Mg(SO4)(H2O)n (n = 0-6) structures". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials . 227 (8): 594–603. Bibcode:2012ZK....227..594H. doi:10.1524/zkri.2012.1473. S2CID   101166515.
  24. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Della Ventura, Giancarlo (1 October 2007). "Short-range order in amphiboles". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry . 67 (1): 173–222. Bibcode:2007RvMG...67..173H. doi:10.2138/rmg.2007.67.5. S2CID   94123518.
  25. 1 2 Hawthorne, Frank C. (23 September 2016). "Short-range atomic arrangements in minerals. I: The minerals of the amphibole, tourmaline and pyroxene supergroups". European Journal of Mineralogy . 28 (3): 513–536. Bibcode:2016EJMin..28..513H. doi: 10.1127/EJM/2016/0028-2538 . S2CID   100181132.
  26. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Schindler, Michael (1 February 2008). "Understanding the weakly bonded constituents in oxysalt minerals". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials . 223 (12): 41–68. Bibcode:2008ZK....223...41H. doi:10.1524/zkri.2008.0003. S2CID   94848921.
  27. 1 2 Hawthorne, Frakn C.; Burns, Peter C.; Grice, Joel D. [in German] (1996). "The crystal chemistry of boron". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry . 33 (1): 41–116. ISSN   1529-6466. S2CID   133133108.
  28. ↑ Bragg, W.L. (29 March 1930). "The structure of silicates". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials . 74 (3152): 237–305. Bibcode:1930Natur.125..510B. doi:10.1038/125510A0. S2CID   29456415.
  29. ↑ Belov, N.V. (1963). Crystal chemistry of large-cation silicates. Moscow: Akademia Nauk SSSR. OCLC   256347. S2CID   92628709.
  30. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Schindler, Michael (2013). "Crystallization and Dissolution in Aqueous Solution: A Bond-valence Approach". In Brown, Ian David; Poeppelmeier, Kenneth (eds.). Structure and Bonding. Bond Valences. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. pp. 161–190. doi:10.1007/430_2013_91. ISBN   9783642549687. ISSN   0081-5993.
  31. ↑ Grice, Joel D. [in German]; Burns, Peter C.; Hawthorne, Frank C. (1999). "Borate minerals II. A hierarchy of structures based on the borate fundamental building block". Canadian Mineralogist. 37: 731–762. S2CID   53529890.
  32. ↑ Lussier, Aaron J.; Lopez, Rachel A.K.; Burns, Peter C. (January 2016). "A revised and expanded structure hierarchy of natural and synthetic hexavalent uranium compounds". Canadian Mineralogist. 54 (1): 177–283. Bibcode:2016CaMin..54..177L. doi:10.3749/canmin.1500078. S2CID   99141419.
  33. ↑ Huminicki, Danielle M.C.; Hawthorne, Frank C. (2002). "The crystal chemistry of the phosphate minerals". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry . 48 (1): 123–253. Bibcode:2002RvMG...48..123H. doi:10.2138/rmg.2002.48.5. S2CID   95717991.
  34. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Krivovichev, Sergey V. [in Russian]; Burns, Peter C. (2000). "The crystal chemistry of sulfate minerals". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry . 40 (1): 1–112. Bibcode:2000RvMG...40....1H. doi:10.2138/rmg.2000.40.1. S2CID   100698794.
  35. ↑ Majzlan, Juraj; Drahota, Petr; Filippi, Michal (2014). "Parageneses and crystal chemistry of arsenic minerals". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry . 79 (1): 17–184. Bibcode:2014RvMG...79...17M. doi:10.2138/rmg.2014.79.2. S2CID   101600205.
  36. ↑ Krivovichev, Sergey V. [in Russian]; Mentré, Olivier; Siidra, Oleg I.; Colmont, Marie; Filatov, Stanislav K. (12 September 2013). "Anion-centered tetrahedra in inorganic compounds". Chemical Reviews . 113 (8): 6459–6535. doi:10.1021/cr3004696. PMID   23621387.
  37. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C. (1992). "The role of OH and H2O in oxide and oxysalt minerals". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials . 201 (1–4): 183–206. doi:10.1524/zkri.1992.201.14.183. S2CID   97779054.
  38. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C. (1997). "Short-range order in amphiboles: a bond-valence approach". Canadian Mineralogist. 35: 203–218. S2CID   132586932.
  39. ↑ Della Ventura, Giancarlo; Robert, Jean-Louis; Bény, Jean-Michel; Raudsepp, Mati; Hawthorne, Frank C. (1993). "The OH-F substitution in Ti-rich potassium-richterites: Rietveld structure refinement and FTIR and micro-Raman spectroscopic studies of synthetic amphiboles in the system K2O-Na2O-CaO-MgO-SiO2-TiO2-H2O-HF" (PDF). American Mineralogist . 78: 980–987. S2CID   100474166.
  40. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C. (18 May 1995). "Light lithophile elements in metamorphic rock-forming minerals". European Journal of Mineralogy . 7 (3): 607–622. Bibcode:1995EJMin...7..607H. doi:10.1127/ejm/7/3/0607. S2CID   132619458.
  41. ↑
  42. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Ungaretti, Luciano; Oberti, Roberta [in Italian]; Caucia, Franca; Callegari, Athos (1993). "The crystal chemistry of staurolite. III. Local order and chemical composition". Canadian Mineralogist. 31 (3): 597–616. S2CID   101311679.
  43. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C. (1996). "Structural mechanisms for light-element variations in tourmaline" (PDF). Canadian Mineralogist. 34: 123–132. S2CID   4606714.
  44. ↑
  45. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Oberti, Roberta [in Italian]; Della Ventura, Giancarlo; Mottana, Annibale, eds. (2007). "Amphiboles: Crystal Chemistry, Occurrence and Health Issues". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry . 67. ISSN   1529-6466.[ page needed ]
  46. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; Oberti, Roberta [in Italian]; Harlow, George E.; Maresch, Walter V.; Martin, Robert F.; Schumacher, John C.; Welch, Mark D. (1 November 2012). "Nomenclature of the amphibole super-group". American Mineralogist . 97 (11–12): 2031–2048. Bibcode:2012AmMin..97.2031H. doi:10.2138/am.2012.4276. S2CID   32057489.
  47. ↑ MacDonald, Daniel J.; Hawthorne, Frank C.; Grice, Joel D. [in German] (1 December 1993). "Foitite, []⁠, a new alkali-deficient tourmaline: Description and crystal structure" (PDF). American Mineralogist . 78 (11–12): 1299–1303. S2CID   99055813.
  48. ↑ Hawthorne, Frank C.; MacDonald, Daniel J.; Burns, Peter C. (1993). "Reassignment of cation site-occupancies in tourmaline: Al/Mg disorder in the crystal structure of dravite" (PDF). American Mineralogist . 78: 265–270. S2CID   99650003.
  49. ↑ Henry, Darrell J.; Novák, Milan; Hawthorne, Frank C.; Ertl, Andreas; Dutrow, Barbara L.; Uher, Pavel; Pezzotta, Federico (1 May 2011). "Nomenclature of the tourmaline super-group minerals". American Mineralogist . 96 (5–6): 895–913. Bibcode:2011AmMin..96..895H. doi:10.2138/am.2011.3636. S2CID   38696645.
  50. ↑
  51. ↑ Cooper, Mark A.; Hawthorne, Frank C. (1999). "The structure topology of sidpietersite, Pb2+4(S6+O3S2-) O2(OH)2, a novel thiosulphate structure". Canadian Mineralogist. 37: 1275–1282. S2CID   132010544.
  52. ↑ Cooper, M.A.; Dunning, G.E.; Hawthorne, F.C.; Ma, C.; Kampf, A.R.; Spratt, J.; Stanley, C.J.; Christy, A.G. (2021). "Mikecoxite, IMA 2021-060. CNMNC Newsletter 64". Mineralogical Magazine . 85. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.93.
  53. ↑ Grice, Joel D. [in German]; Roberts, Andrew C. (1995). "Frankhawthorneite, a unique HCP framework structure of a cupric tellurate" (PDF). Canadian Mineralogist. 33: 649–653. S2CID   262008830.
  54. ↑ "Mineralogical Society of America Fellows List". Mineralogical Society of America .
  55. ↑ Barr, S.M. (1984). "Proceedings of the twenty-ninth annual meeting of the Mineralogical Association of Canada" (PDF). Canadian Mineralogist. 22: 695. S2CID   134628584.
  56. ↑ "Member Directory | the Royal Society of Canada".
  57. ↑ "The W.W. Hutchison Medal". Geological Association of Canada. Archived from the original on 5 February 2007.
  58. ↑ "The Killam Program: A record of Canada Council's role". Canada Council for the Arts . Retrieved 29 August 2024. To the right, there are two links. They will download PDFs to your device. This award is listed on the Fellowship PDF.
  59. ↑ "Past Award Winners | the Royal Society of Canada". 21 October 2018.
  60. ↑ Wicks, Fred J. (1998). "The Hawley Medal for 1994 to Frank Hawthorne, Luciano Ungaretti, Roberta Oberti, Franca Caucia and Athos Callegari" (PDF). Canadian Mineralogist. 22: 986–988.
  61. ↑ "Neumann Medal". Originally the Schlumberger Medal, it was renamed the Neumann Medal in 2022.
  62. ↑ "The Logan Medal". Archived from the original on 4 February 2001.
  63. 1 2 "Dr. Frank Hawthorne Profile Page | Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Environment, Earth, and Resources". University of Manitoba .
  64. ↑ Nicholls, James (1999). "The Hawley Medal for 1998 to Frank C. Hawthorne" (PDF). Canadian Mineralogist. 36: 259.
  65. ↑ Mitchell, Roger M. (1999). "The Past-Presidents' Medal for 1999 to Frank C. Hawthorne" (PDF). Canadian Mineralogist. 38: 261–262. Note that the Past-Presidents' Medal has since been renamed the Peacock Medal.
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  67. ↑ "Most-Cited Authors in Geosciences, 1991-2001". Science Watch. December 2001. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012.
  68. 1 2 "Dr. Frank C. Hawthorne".
  69. ↑ "Research From the Ground Up". Science Watch. August 2007. Archived from the original on 11 March 2012.
  70. ↑ "Geochemistry Fellows". Geochemical Society .
  71. ↑ "Geochemistry Fellows". European Association of Geochemistry .
  72. ↑ "Constance Backhouse, Sherrill Grace, Frank Hawthorne, Peter St George-Hyslop and Michael Sefton to receive $100,000 Killam Prizes". Canada Council for the Arts (Press release). 29 April 2008. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  73. ↑ "2009 - Frank C. HAWTHORNE". International Mineralogical Association . 7 May 2012.
  74. ↑ "Dr. Barbara Lee Dutrow Wins the 2021 Carnegie Mineralogical Award".
  75. ↑ "Past Award Winners". The Royal Society of Canada. 21 October 2018.
  76. ↑ "Recipients". 11 June 2018.
  77. ↑ "Presentation of the 2013 Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America to Frank C. Hawthorne | American Mineralogist". GeoScienceWorld.
  78. ↑ "Fellowship - Current Fellows".
  79. ↑ "Honorary Fellows".
  80. ↑ "A Tribute to Frank Christopher Hawthorne".
  81. ↑ "Buerger Award".
  82. ↑ "Professor Emeritus Frank C. Hawthorne elected to the Academia Europaea". 26 July 2021.
  83. ↑ "Fellows".
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