Functional Ensemble of Temperament

Last updated

Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) is a neurochemical model suggesting specific functional roles of main neurotransmitter systems in the regulation of behaviour.

Contents

Earlier theories

Medications can adjust the release of brain neurotransmitters in cases of depression, anxiety disorder, schizophrenia and other mental disorders because an imbalance within neurotransmitter systems can emerge as consistent characteristics in behaviour compromising people's lives. All people have a weaker form of such imbalance in at least one of such neurotransmitter systems that make each of us distinct from one another. The impact of this weak imbalance in neurochemistry can be seen in the consistent features of behaviour in healthy people (temperament). In this sense temperament (as neuro-chemically-based individual differences) and mental illness represents varying degrees along the same continuum of neurotransmitter imbalance in neurophysiological systems of behavioural regulation. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

In fact, multiple temperament traits (such as Impulsivity, sensation seeking, neuroticism, endurance, plasticity, sociability or extraversion) have been linked to brain neurotransmitters and hormone systems. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]

By the end of the 20th century, it became clear that the human brain operates with more than a dozen neurotransmitters and a large number of neuropeptides and hormones. The relationships between these different chemical systems are complex as some of them suppress and some of them induce each other's release during neuronal exchanges. This complexity of relationships devalues the old approach of assigning "inhibitory vs. excitatory" roles to neurotransmitters: the same neurotransmitters can be either inhibitory or excitatory depending on what system they interact with. It became clear that an impressive diversity of neurotransmitters and their receptors is necessary to meet a wide range of behavioural situations, but the links between temperament traits and specific neurotransmitters are still a matter of research. Several attempts were made to assign specific (single) neurotransmitters to specific (single) traits. For example, dopamine was proposed to be a neurotransmitter of the trait of Extraversion, noradrenaline was linked to anxiety, and serotonin was thought to be a neurotransmitter of an inhibition system. These assignments of neurotransmitter functions appeared to be an oversimplification when confronted by the evidence of much more diverse functionality. [16] [17] Research groups led by Petra Netter in Germany, Lars Farde in Karolinska Institute in Sweden and Trevor Robbins in Cambridge, UK had most extensive studies of the links between temperament/personality traits or dynamical properties of behavior and groups of neurotransmitters. [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

Development of the FET model

The architecture of the Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) was developed by Trofimova as the Compact version of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ-77) in 1997–2007. The differentiation between the rows of the FET inherits the activity-specific approach to the structure of temperament proposed by Rusalov in mid-1980s. According to this approach, the traits of temperament (and behavioural regulation) related to motor-physical, social-verbal and mental aspects of activities are based on different neurophysiological systems and should be assessed separately (so you can see a separation of traits into 3 rows related to these 3 types of activities). The 3-column structure of the FET framework follows Alexander Luria theory of three functional neuroanatomic systems (sensory-informational, programming and energetic) and is in line with functional constructivism approach. [26] This approach views all behaviour as being constructed and generated anew based on individual's capacities and demands of the situation [19]

The final STQ-77/FET model considers 12 systems (and temperament traits): 9 systems (and traits) regulating the formal functional aspects of behaviour (energetic, dynamic and orientational, each assessed in three domains (intellectual, physical and social-verbal) together with 3 systems related to emotionality (Neuroticism, Impulsivity and a disposition of Satisfaction (formerly called Self-Confidence) (see Figure). [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [19] [33]

The differences between Trofimova's and Rusalov's models of temperament (and the structures of their versions of the STQ) are:

The structure of neurochemical framework Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) corresponds to 12 universal aspects of construction of behaviour. Shadowed text relates to temperament traits; blue capital letters highlight the lead, and grey - supporting neurotransmitters for the given trait. Note: 5-HT: serotonin; DA: dopamine; NE: noradrenalin; ACh: acetylcholine; Glu: Glutamate; H: histamine; A: adenosine; Estr: estrogen; NP: neuropeptides; GH: Growth Hormone; ORE: orexins, KOR, MOR, DOR: kappa-, delta- and mu-opioid receptors systems correspondingly; HPA: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; Tstr - Testosterone, Adr - Adrenaline, Cort - Cortisol FET framework.jpg
The structure of neurochemical framework Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) corresponds to 12 universal aspects of construction of behaviour. Shadowed text relates to temperament traits; blue capital letters highlight the lead, and grey – supporting neurotransmitters for the given trait. Note: 5-HT: serotonin; DA: dopamine; NE: noradrenalin; ACh: acetylcholine; Glu: Glutamate; H: histamine; A: adenosine; Estr: estrogen; NP: neuropeptides; GH: Growth Hormone; ORE: orexins, KOR, MOR, DOR: kappa-, delta- and mu-opioid receptors systems correspondingly; HPA: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; Tstr – Testosterone, Adr – Adrenaline, Cort – Cortisol

.

In 2007–2013 this STQ-77 model of temperament was reviewed and compared to the main findings in neurophysiology, neurochemistry, clinical psychology and kinesiology resulting in the neurochemical FET model offered by Irina Trofimova, McMaster University. [16] Trevor Robbins, Cambridge University who collaborated with Trofimova on this project in 2014–2016 suggested a revision of the part of the FET neurochemical hypothesis related to the trait of Intellectual (mental) Endurance (known in cognitive psychology also as "sustained attention"). This neurochemical component of the FET hypothesis was upgraded in 2015 by underlying a key role of acetylcholine and noradrenalin in sustained attention. [16] [17] [35] In February 2018, by the suggestion of Dr Marina Kolbeneva (Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences) the scale Self-Confidence was renamed as the scale of dispositional Satisfaction. [19]

Overview of the model

The final STQ-77/FET framework classifies temperament traits and their neurochemical biomarkers into 12 components: nine components regulating the formal functional aspects of behaviour (energetic, dynamic and orientational) each assessed in three domains (intellectual, physical and social-verbal); also three components related to emotionality (Neuroticism, Impulsivity and Satisfaction (Self-Confidence)) (see Figure) [19] [34] [33] [36]

The FET framework summarized existing literature showing the nine non-emotionality traits are regulated by the monoamines (MA) (noradrenalin, dopamine, serotonin), acetylcholine and neuropeptide systems, whereas the three emotionality-related traits emerge as a dysregulation of opioid receptors systems that have direct control over MA systems. Importantly, the FET model suggests that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the neurotransmitter systems underlying temperament traits (or mental disorders) but instead specific ensemble relationships between these systems emerge as temperament traits. [16] [17] [31] [32] [19] The FET framework is based only on the strongest consensus points in the research studying the role of neurotransmitter in behavioural regulation and the components of temperament; it doesn't list more controversial links between these multiple systems.

Temperament trait Description Hypothesized links to neurochemical systems †
Behavioral orientation traits NE +...
Sensation seeking behavioral orientation to well-defined and existing sensational objects and events, underestimation of outcomes of risky behaviourhigh Testosterone, fluctuating Adrenaline (leading to occasional HPA under-arousal), low cortisol, in interactions with the brain NE systems
Empathy behavioral orientation to the emotional states/needs of others versus Self-orientation (ranging from social dependency/semi-delusional social perception to selfishness and insensitivity to social expectations known in Asperger syndrome)Higher OXY and lower vasopressin functions interacting with the brain NE system
Sensitivity to Probabilities (analytic abilities)the drive to gather information about commonality, frequency and values of events, to differentiate their specific features, to project these features in future actionsInteraction between neocortical Glu, NE, DA and ACh systems
Speed of action-integration traitsDA +...
Physical Tempospeed of integration of an action in physical manipulations with objects with well-defined scripts of actionsDA-GABA interaction in basal ganglia, DOR, with involvement of ACh interneurons, NP and adenosine
Social-verbal Tempothe preferred speed of speech and ability to understand fast speech on well-known topics, reading and sorting of known verbal material Estrogen, NP under DA control, especially in dorsal striatum
Plasticity the ability to adapt quickly to changes in situations, to generate new program of action, and to shift between different tasksDA-ACh-GABA interaction with ACh systems in the cortex-basal ganglia networks
Maintenance of activity traits5-HT, ACh +...
Physical Endurance the ability of an individual to sustain prolonged physical activity using well-defined behavioral elements5-HT, orexins, NP, histamine
Social-verbal Endurance (sociability)sociability; the ability of an individual to sustain prolonged social-verbal activities using well-defined behavioral elements5-HT, estrogen, histamine
Mental Endurance (sustained attention)the ability to stay focused on selected features of objects with suppression of behavioral reactivity to other featuresNeocortical NE-ACh (with a lead of ACh for tonic attention and a lead of NE for novelty aspects), supported by cortical 5-HT
Emotional amplifier traits Opioid receptor systems + ...
Neuroticism A tendency to avoid novelty, unpredictable situations and uncertainty.KOR, cytokins or some Gut microbiota leading to activation of HPA and/or NE release
Impulsivity Initiation of actions based on immediate emotional reactivitysANS, HPA axis → DOR > MOR, DA
SatisfactionA sense of security, disposition for a good mood; in high values – overconfidence with negligence to detailsMOR, some Gut microbiota →(5-HT, DA)

† Neurotransmitter systems: 5-HT: serotonin; DA: dopamine; NE: noradrenalin; ACh: acetylcholine; Glu: glutamate; OXY: oxytocin; VSP: vasopressin; NP: Neuropeptides; KOR, MOR, DOR: kappa-, mu- and delta-opioid receptors correspondingly; sANS - sympathetic autonomic nervous system; HPA - hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.

The FET points out that opioid receptor systems are involved not only in regulation of emotional dispositions but also amplify three non-emotionality aspects of behaviour (KOR for orientation, DOR for integration of actions and MOR of approval-maintenance of behaviour). [31] [19] This involvement was confirmed for MOR systems that bind endorphins: experiments show that MOR overstimulation influences hypothalamic serotonin and Brain-derived neurotrophic factor release and affecting endurance aspects of behaviour. [37] [38] [39] The interplay within hormonal systems and its interaction with serotonin also appeared to be a factor is social emotions, such as shame and guilt [40]

FET model and classifications of psychiatric disorders

FET framework was proposed to simplify classifications of psychiatric disorders (DSM, ICD) using 12 functional aspects of behaviour that this model highlights. [41] [11] [19] Clinical studies showed good differential power of the FET framework for various diagnoses of psychopathology. For example, depressed people had low endurance and psychomotor slowdown in their temperament profiles. [9] [10] [11] [41] In contrast to them, patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder had higher impulsivity and neuroticism. [9] [8] [11] FET-developers suggested that every symptom in DSM/ICD diagnoses can be mapped into a specific FET code reflecting a disregulation within well-documented neurochemical systems. [19]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety</span> Unpleasant complex combination of emotions

Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a real threat, whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future threat. It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurotransmitter</span> Chemical substance that enables neurotransmission

A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of mental disorders</span> Etiology of psychopathology

A mental disorder is an impairment of the mind disrupting normal thinking, feeling, mood, behavior, or social interactions, and accompanied by significant distress or dysfunction. The causes of mental disorders are very complex and vary depending on the particular disorder and the individual. Although the causes of most mental disorders are not fully understood, researchers have identified a variety of biological, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the development or progression of mental disorders. Most mental disorders result in a combination of several different factors rather than just a single factor.

In psychology, temperament broadly refers to consistent individual differences in behavior that are biologically based and are relatively independent of learning, system of values and attitudes.

In psychology, trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals, are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory dispositions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serotonin transporter</span> Mammalian protein found in humans

The serotonin transporter also known as the sodium-dependent serotonin transporter and solute carrier family 6 member 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC6A4 gene. SERT is a type of monoamine transporter protein that transports the neurotransmitter serotonin from the synaptic cleft back to the presynaptic neuron, in a process known as serotonin reuptake.

Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience examines how neurochemicals influence the operation of neurons, synapses, and neural networks. Neurochemists analyze the biochemistry and molecular biology of organic compounds in the nervous system, and their roles in such neural processes including cortical plasticity, neurogenesis, and neural differentiation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Five personality traits</span> Personality model consisting of five broad dimensions

The Big Five personality traits, sometimes known as "the Five-Factor model of personality", is a grouping of five unique characteristics used to study personality. It has been developed from the 1980s onward in psychological trait theory.

Biological psychiatry or biopsychiatry is an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorder in terms of the biological function of the nervous system. It is interdisciplinary in its approach and draws on sciences such as neuroscience, psychopharmacology, biochemistry, genetics, epigenetics and physiology to investigate the biological bases of behavior and psychopathology. Biopsychiatry is the branch of medicine which deals with the study of the biological function of the nervous system in mental disorders.

In the study of psychology, neuroticism has been considered a fundamental personality trait. In the Big Five approach to personality trait theory, individuals with high scores for neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. The responses can include maladaptive behaviors, such as dissociation, procrastination, substance use, etc., which aids in relieving the negative emotions and generating positive ones.

Psychological dependence is a cognitive disorder that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms—e.g. anxiety and anhedonia—upon cessation of prolonged drug abuse or certain repetitive behaviors. It develops through frequent exposure to a psychoactive substance or behavior, though behavioral dependence is less talked about. The specific mechanism involves a neuronal counter-adaptation, which could be mediated through changes in neurotransmitter activity or altered receptor expression. Environmental enrichment and physical activity can attenuate withdrawal symptoms. Psychological dependence is not to be confused with physical dependence, which induces physical withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation of use. However, they are not mutually exclusive.

Trevor William RobbinsCBE FRS FMedSci is a professor of cognitive neuroscience and the former Head of the Department of Psychology at the University of Cambridge. Robbins interests are in the fields of cognitive neuroscience, behavioural neuroscience and psychopharmacology.

In psychology, novelty seeking (NS) is a personality trait associated with exploratory activity in response to novel stimulation, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to reward cues, quick loss of temper, and avoidance of frustration. That is, Novelty seeking refers to the tendency to pursue new experiences with intense emotional sensations. It is a multifaceted behavioral construct that includes thrill seeking, novelty preference, risk taking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence. The novelty-seeking trait is considered a heritable tendency of individuals to take risks for the purpose of achieving stimulation and seeking new environments and situations that make their experiences more intense. This trait has been associated with the level of motive and excitement in response to novelty. Persons with high levels of novelty seeking have been described as more impulsive and disorderly than low novelty seekers and have a higher propensity to get involved in risky activities, such as starting to misuse drugs, engaging in risky sexual activities, and suffering accidental injuries. It is measured in the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire as well as the later version Temperament and Character Inventory and is considered one of the temperament dimensions of personality. Like the other temperament dimensions, it has been found to be highly heritable. Another related term, Variety seeking or variety-seeking buying behavior describes a consumer's desire to search for alternative products even if she or he is satisfied with a current product. For example, someone may drink tea with lunch one day but choose orange juice the next day specifically to get something different. High NS has been suggested to be related to low dopaminergic activity.

Scientific studies have found that different brain areas show altered activity in humans with major depressive disorder (MDD), and this has encouraged advocates of various theories that seek to identify a biochemical origin of the disease, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Factors spanning these causative groups include nutritional deficiencies in magnesium, vitamin D, and tryptophan with situational origin but biological impact. Several theories concerning the biologically based cause of depression have been suggested over the years, including theories revolving around monoamine neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, inflammation and the circadian rhythm. Physical illnesses, including hypothyroidism and mitochondrial disease, can also trigger depressive symptoms.

The biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) refers biologically based theories about the mechanism of OCD. Cognitive models generally fall into the category of executive dysfunction or modulatory control. Neuroanatomically, functional and structural neuroimaging studies implicate the prefrontal cortex (PFC), basal ganglia (BG), insula, and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Genetic and neurochemical studies implicate glutamate and monoamine neurotransmitters, especially serotonin and dopamine.

A monoamine reuptake inhibitor (MRI) is a drug that acts as a reuptake inhibitor of one or more of the three major monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine by blocking the action of one or more of the respective monoamine transporters (MATs), which include the serotonin transporter (SERT), norepinephrine transporter (NET), and dopamine transporter (DAT). This in turn results in an increase in the synaptic concentrations of one or more of these neurotransmitters and therefore an increase in monoaminergic neurotransmission.

The biological basis of personality it is the collection of brain systems and mechanisms that underlie human personality. Human neurobiology, especially as it relates to complex traits and behaviors, is not well understood, but research into the neuroanatomical and functional underpinnings of personality are an active field of research. Animal models of behavior, molecular biology, and brain imaging techniques have provided some insight into human personality, especially trait theories.

Activity-specific approach in temperament research is the theory related to a structure of temperament, i.e. how temperament traits can be classified and organized. This approach suggests:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vladimir Rusalov</span> Russian psychologist and anthropologist (1939–2023)

Vladimir Mikhailovich Rusalov was a Russian psychologist and anthropologist who was the first to develop a temperament model within the activity-specific approach. He was best known for his work in psychology of personality, temperament and differential psychophysiology.

Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ) is a test to measure 12 biologically and neurochemically based individual differences.

References

  1. ↑ Clark, L.A., Watson, D., & Mineka, S. (1994). Temperament, personality, and mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(1), 103–116.
  2. ↑ Cloninger CR (ed). Personality and psychopathology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 1999.
  3. ↑ Mehrabian, A. (1995). Distinguishing depression and trait anxiety in terms of basic dimensions of temperament. Imagination. Cognition and Personality, 15(2), 133-143.
  4. ↑ Ball, S.A., Tennen, H., Poling, J.C., Kranzlen, H.R., & Rounsaville, B.J. (1999). Personality, temperament, and character dimensions and DSM-IV personality disorders in substance abusers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(4), 545-553
  5. ↑ Brown, T.A. (2007). Temporal course and structural relationships among dimensions of temperament and DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorder constructs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(2), 313-328
  6. ↑ Karam, E.G., Salamoun, M.M., Yeretzian, J.S., Neimneh, Z.N., Karam, A.N. et al. (2010). The role of anxious and hyperthymic temperaments in mental disorders: a national epidemiologic study. World Psychiatry, 9(2), 103–110.
  7. ↑ Watson, D. & Naragon-Gainey, K. (2014). Personality, emotions, and emotional disorders. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(4), 422-442.
  8. 1 2 Trofimova, IN; Christiansen, J. (2016). "Coupling of temperament traits with mental illness in four age groups". Psychological Reports. 118 (2): 387–412. doi:10.1177/0033294116639430. PMID   27154370. S2CID   24465522.
  9. 1 2 3 Trofimova, IN; Sulis, W (2016). "Benefits of distinguishing between physical and social-verbal aspects of behaviour: an example of generalized anxiety". Frontiers in Psychology. 7: 338. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00338 . PMC   4789559 . PMID   27014146.
  10. 1 2 Trofimova, IN; Sulis, W (2016). "A study of the coupling of FET temperament traits with major depression". Frontiers in Psychology. 7: 1848. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01848 . PMC   5123189 . PMID   27933018.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Trofimova, I.; Sulis, W. (2018). "There is more to mental illness than negative affect: Comprehensive temperament profiles in depression and generalized anxiety". BMC Psychiatry. 18 (1): 125. doi: 10.1186/s12888-018-1695-x . PMC   5946468 . PMID   29747614.
  12. ↑ Gray, J.A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: an enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford: Oxford University Press
  13. ↑ Netter, P. (1991) Biochemical variables in the study of temperament. In Strelau, J. & Angleitner, A. (Eds.), Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement 147-161. New York: Plenum Press.
  14. ↑ Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50:975-990.
  15. ↑ Depue, R.A., & Morrone-Strupinsky, J.V. (2005). A neurobehavioural model of affiliate bonding: implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. Journal of Behavioural and Brain Science, 28(3), 313-350.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Trofimova, IN (2016). "The interlocking between functional aspects of activities and a neurochemical model of adult temperament". In: Arnold, M.C. (Ed.) Temperaments: Individual Differences, Social and Environmental Influences and Impact on Quality of Life. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.: 77–147.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Trofimova, IN; Robbins, TW (2016). "Temperament and arousal systems: a new synthesis of differential psychology and functional neurochemistry". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 64: 382–402. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.008. hdl: 11375/26202 . PMID   26969100. S2CID   13937324.
  18. ↑ Depue, R. & Fu, Y. (2012) Neurobiology and neurochemistry of temperament in adults. In: Zentner, M. & Shiner, R. (Eds.) Handbook of Temperament. NY: Guilford Publications, 368-399. (2012).
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Trofimova, I. (2021). "Contingent tunes of neurochemical ensembles in the norm and pathology: can we see the patterns?". Neuropsychobiology. 80 (2): 101–133. doi: 10.1159/000513688 . PMID   33721867. S2CID   232243254.
  20. ↑ Netter, P. (1991) Biochemical variables in the study of temperament. In Strelau, J. & Angleitner, A. (Eds.) Explorations in temperament: international perspectives on theory and measurement, 147-161. New York:Plenum Press.
  21. ↑ Netter, P. (2006) Dopamine challenge tests as an indicator of psychological traits. Human psychopharmacology: clinical and experimental 21:91–99.
  22. ↑ Netter, P., Hennig, J. & Roed, I. (1996) Serotonin and dopamine as mediators of sensation seeking behaviour. Neuropsychobiology 34:155–65.
  23. ↑ Robbins, T.W., & Roberts, A.C. (2007) Differential regulation of fronto-executive function by the monoamines and acetylcholine. Cerebral Cortex 17 (Suppl 1):151–160.
  24. ↑ Walker, S.C., Robbins, T.W., & Roberts, A.C. (2009) Differential contributions of dopamine and serotonin to orbitofrontal cortex function in the marmoset. Cerebral Cortex 19(4):889-898.
  25. ↑ Robbins, T.W., & Everitt, B.J. (1996) Arousal Systems and Attention. In: Gazzaniga, M. The Cognitive Neurosciences 703-720. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  26. ↑ Trofimova, I. (2017). "Functional Constructivism: In Search of Formal Descriptors". Nonlinear Dynamics in Psychology and Life Sciences. 21 (4): 441–474. PMID   28923156.
  27. ↑ Rusalov, VM; Trofimova, IN (2007). Structure of Temperament and Its Measurement. Toronto, Canada: Psychological Services Press.
  28. ↑ Trofimova, IN (2010). "Questioning the "general arousal" models". Open Behavioral Science and Psychology. 4: 1–8. doi: 10.2174/1874230001004010001 .
  29. ↑ Trofimova, IN (2010). "An investigation into differences between the structure of temperament and the structure of personality". American Journal of Psychology. 123 (4): 467–480. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.123.4.0467. PMID   21291163.
  30. ↑ Trofimova, IN; Sulis, W (2011). "Is temperament activity-specific? Validation of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire – Compact (STQ-77)". International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy. 11 (3): 389–400.
  31. 1 2 3 Trofimova, IN (2018). "Functionality vs dimensionality in psychological taxonomies, and a puzzle of emotional valence". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 373, 1744 (1744). doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0167. PMC   5832691 . PMID   29483351.
  32. 1 2 3 Trofimova, IN (2019). "An overlap between mental abilities and temperament traits". McFarland, D. (Ed.) General and Specific Mental Abilities. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Cambridge, UK: 176–225.
  33. 1 2 Trofimova, I (2021). "Functional constructivism approach to multilevel nature of biobehavioural diversity". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12: 641286. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.641286 . PMC   8578849 . PMID   34777031.
  34. 1 2 3 Trofimova, I; Gaykalova, A (2021). "Emotionality vs. other biobehavioural traits: a look at neurochemical biomarkers for their differentiation". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 781631. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781631 . PMC   8720768 . PMID   34987450.
  35. ↑ Robbins, TW (2018). "Opinion on monoaminergic contributions to traits and temperament". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 383 (1744). doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0153. PMC   5832679 . PMID   29483339.
  36. ↑ Trofimova, I (2022). "Transient nature of stable behavioural patterns, and how we can respect it". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 44: 641286. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101109. S2CID   247249864.
  37. ↑ Yoshioka M, Matsumoto M, Togashi H, Smith CB, Saito H (1993). "Opioid receptor regulation of 5-hydroxytryptamine release from the rat hippocampus measured by in vivo microdialysis". Brain Research. 613 (1): 74–79. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(93)90456-w. hdl: 2027.42/30746 . PMID   8394180. S2CID   1556815.
  38. ↑ Fujita W, Gomes I, Devi LA (2014). "ORevolution in GPCR signalling: opioid receptor heteromers as novel therapeutic targets: IUPHAR review 10". Br J Pharmacol. 171 (18): 4155–4176. doi:10.1111/bph.12798. PMC   4241085 . PMID   24916280. S2CID   9840181.
  39. ↑ Rezaei S, Bakhshani NM, Fanaei H, Trofimova I (2021). "Opium effect in pregnancy on the dynamics of maternal behaviour: testing a neurochemical model". Neuropsychobiology. 80 (2): 147–157. doi:10.1159/000512698. ISSN   0302-282X. PMID   33611320. S2CID   231987701.
  40. ↑ Kanen JW, Robbins TW, Trofimova IN (2021). "Harnessing Temperament to Elucidate the Complexities of Serotonin Function". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 45: 101108. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101108 . S2CID   247297736.
  41. 1 2 Sulis, W (2018). "Assessing the continuum between temperament and affective illness: psychiatric and mathematical perspectives". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 373 (1744). doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0168. PMC   5832692 . PMID   29483352.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.