Govigama

Last updated

Govigama (also known as Goyigama, Govikula, Govi Vansa or Goyi Vansa) [1] is a Sinhalese caste found in Sri Lanka. They form approximately half of the Sinhalese population and are traditionally involved in agriculture. [2] The term Govigama became popular during the last period of the Sinhalese Kingdom of Kandy. Its members have dominated and influenced national politics and Sinhalese Buddhism (particularly the Siam Nikaya sect). [3]

Contents

Geographically Govigama is highly concentrated into Upcountry including Kandy, Colombo and some other interior areas of low country. These Govi and the Bathgama have traditionally been responsible for cultivation in accordance with the traditional tenure system of land-holding known as Rājākariya, where the king granted land in exchange for services rendered. [4] The Govigama caste has several endogamous subdivisions which include the Radalas (Kandyan aristocracy), Rate atto (husbandmen), Patti (shepherds), Katupulle (messengers or clerks), Nilamakkara (temple servants), Porovakara (wood cutters), Vahal (Radala servants) and Gattara (Govigama outcaste). [5] [6] [7] [8]

Etymology

The caste name is occupational derived. Govigama is derived from the Sinhala word Goyigama meaning farm-land, in reference to their traditional occupation as farmers and land owners. [9] [10] Early Sinhalese texts such as the 13th century Pujavaliya mention a caste system of the Sinhalese society; the Raja (rulers), Bamunu (Brahmins), Velanda (traders) and the Govi (Farmers). [11] [12] being the forward castes. [13]

The appellation Govi is probably derived from the Prakritic Gahapati which literally means 'householder'. [14] We find in the 13th century Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya of Dharmasena, the Pali term gahapati being rendered as Govi gahapatika or Govi kulehi upan tänättō. [15] Gahapati occurs in ancient Pali literature as the third ranking caste after the Khattiya and Brāhmaṇa and appears to have been synonymous with the Vessakula i.e. Vaiśya. [16] [17]

When it comes to the present day, it appears that the Govigama caste has transformed into a compound caste made out of all castes mentioned in Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya (raja, bamunu, velanda and govi) consisting of four sub-castes, Radalavaru (Governing elite), Mudaliperuwa (Knighted elite), Rate aththo (officers of state), and Goviyo( farmers). [18] [19] [20]

An 18th-century illustration of a Hondrew (goyigama) officer of the kandyan king supervising a man extoring a fine, from An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon by Robert Knox (1641-1720) A peasant and a Govigama - tax collecting state offiiicial of sri lanka.jpg
An 18th-century illustration of a Hondrew (goyigama) officer of the kandyan king supervising a man extoring a fine, from An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon by Robert Knox (1641–1720)

History

Ancient period

Ancient texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya list the four major classes as Raja, Bamunu, Velanda, and Govi. [11] [12]

Kandyan period

For the past 1,700 years the only undisputed symbol of Sri Lankan royalty and leadership has been the sacred Tooth Relic of Gautama Buddha. Whosoever possessed this was acknowledged as the rightful ruler of Lanka, and thus the Tooth Relic was a possession exclusive to the ruling dynasty of Sri Lanka. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, in 1595 it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Temple of the Tooth. However, even in the land-locked Kandyan kingdom 'Unambuwe' a son of a concubine of some considerable background was deemed not of 'royalty', hence a Telugu of royalty was imported from Madurai. This last Kandyan royal dynasty (four kings) of Nayake origin was from the Balija caste [22] [23] Even King Senarat Adahasin's regent, Antonio Baretto Kuruvita Rala, Prince of Ouva, was not from the Govi cast. [24]

The oldest Buddhist sect in Sri Lanka, the Siam Nikaya (established on 19 July 1753) are the custodians of the Tooth Relic, since its establishment during the Kandyan Kingdom. The Siam Nikaya uses caste-based divisions, and as of 1764 grants higher ordination only to the Govigama caste, excluding other castes from its numbers, [25] Sitinamaluwe Dhammajoti (Durawa) was the last non-Govigama monk to receive upasampada. This conspiracy festered within the Siam Nikaya itself and Moratota Dhammakkandha, Mahanayaka of Kandy, with the help of the last two Kandyan Telugu Kings victimised the low-country Mahanayaka Karatota Dhammaranma by confiscating the Sri Pada shrine and the retinue villages from the low country fraternity and appointing a rival Mahanayaka [26]

Current political power

Non–Govigama representation in Parliament has steadily declined since independence and representation of non-Govigama castes are well below their population percentages. Caste representation in the Cabinet has always been limited to a few very visible, but unconcerned and disconnected members from other castes. [27]

Customs

Occupation

The Govigama are a landowning caste. [28] [29] The Sinhalese caste system was based on the service to the king or 'raja kariya', [28] and land ownership. The Govigama people had the right to cultivate and use the lands of the Sinhalese Kingdom at the behest of Sinhalese King. Their contribution to rice production, leadership in Buddhism and service in royal service gave Govigama people the foremost role in the ancient agrarian society in Sri Lanka. Kings are said to have participated in harvesting festivals held end of each Yala (dry) and Maha (wet) season. [30]

In the present era, it has been a norm that the head of the country should be a Govigama caste member, though President Premadasa was not. Colonial occupiers, including the Portuguese, Dutch and British, tried to change Govigama dominance by giving prominence to other castes by granting government posts and education under them. However they were unable to change the caste hierarchy in traditional Sinhalese society. The Dutch and the British introduced the ideas of Republicanism.

Names

An important characteristic in the Sinhalese caste system is that the family name or the surname details the ancestry. The original name was given based on where one lived. Later, honorary terms, granted by the king based on a person's service to the kingdom, were added to the original name. This continued for generations and resulted in very long names. In General, Disawe, Mudiyanse, Adikari, Mahalekam, Appuhamy, Imiya raala, Nawaratne, Jayathilaka, Gunathilaka, Jayawardana, Wijayawardhana, Wijeyasundara, Udugampola, Gunawardhana, Siriwardhana, Abeywardhana, Abeysiriwardhana, Abeygunawardhana, Dharmawardhana, Bandaranayake, Dissanayake, Ekanayake, Gajanayaka, Kulatunga, Liyanage, Madawala, Rathnasinghe, Ranasinghe, Wijesinghe, Dunuwille, Dunusinghe, Wickramasinghe, Rajapaksha, Molamure, Meedeniya, Kiriella, Herath, Yapa, Unambuwe, Rekawa, Widanapathirana, Balasooriya, Iddamalgoda, Ganegoda, Halangoda, Kodagoda, Kobbakaduwa, Arachchi, Vidhane are considered to be names taken up by Govigama people, and these names were extended according to the ranking in the service of the kingdom. Further variations exist due to changes during the colonial period. Historic literature and inscriptional evidence from the feudal period show that this hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period until the collapse of Sri Lankan kingdoms and social structure under the onslaught of European colonialism. However, even in the present day, Sinhalese people look at surnames and ancestry when it comes to marriages. [31] [32] [33] [34]

As for name and religious conversions, Govigama families too became Christian and had Portuguese/Christian names (some strangely adopted during British/Dutch times) such as Don Davith (Rajapaksas), [35] [36] Barthlamew (Senanayakes), Ridgeway Dias (Nilaperumal/Bandaranaykes), Pererala, Arnolis Dep (Wijewardane), Corea, Ilangakoon, de Saa Bandaranaike, Obeyesekere, de Saram, Don Johannes(Padmawansha/Kumarage), de Alwis, etc. It is also why all elite Sri Lankans of the British period be it farmer or other wise had English first names. The English first names were common among many not necessarily associated to Govigama. Some of the Goyigama such as the Bandaranayake also were pioneer arrack renters of the colonial era among many other castes. [37]

Social status

In traditional Sinhalese society Buddhist monks are placed at the top. Irrespective of the birth caste of a monk, even the king had to worship him. However, this led to some Buddhist sects in Sri Lanka allowing only Govigama people to join, contrary to Buddha's instructions. Other castes such as Karava, Durava, Salagama and Wahumpura have their own Buddhist sects. The Govigama sect also known as the Mahavihara Wanshika Siyam Order hold the custody of Sri Dalada Maligawa (The temple of the tooth) and the sacred tooth relic of Buddha. [38] [39] [40]

Notable people

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kandy</span> City in the Central Province of Sri Lanka

Kandy is a major city in located in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It was the last capital of the Sinhalese monarchy from 1469 to 1818, under the Kingdom of Kandy. The city is situated in the midst of hills in the Kandy plateau, which crosses an area of tropical plantations, mainly tea. Kandy is both an administrative and religious city and the capital of the Central Province. Kandy is the home of the Temple of the Tooth Relic, one of the most sacred places of worship in the Buddhist world. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. Historically the local Buddhist rulers resisted Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial expansion and occupation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buddhism in Sri Lanka</span>

Theravada Buddhism is the largest and official religion of Sri Lanka, practiced by 70.2% of the population as of 2012. Practitioners of Sri Lankan Buddhism can be found amongst the majority Sinhalese population as well as among the minority ethnic groups. Sri Lankan Buddhists share many similarities with Southeast Asian Buddhists, specifically Myanmar Buddhists and Thai Buddhists due to traditional and cultural exchange. Sri Lanka is one of five nations with a Theravada Buddhist majority.

The SiamNikaya is a monastic order within Sri Lankan Buddhism, founded by Upali Thera of Siyam, on the initiatives taken by Weliwita Sri Saranankara thera to revive Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the mid 18th century. At the beginning it was located predominantly around the city of Kandy but now has spread to the other parts of the country as well. It is named as 'Siyam' because it was originated within Thailand. The Siyam Nikaya has two major divisions and five other divisions within these two major units. The Malwatta and Asgiriya chapters have two separate Maha Nayaka theros or chief monks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amarapura Nikāya</span> Sri Lankan Buddhist monastic order, originated from Myanmar

The Amarapura Nikaya was a Sri Lankan monastic fraternity founded in 1800. It is named after the city of Amarapura, Burma, the capital of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma at that time. Amarapura Nikaya monks are Theravada Buddhists. On 16 August 2019, the Amarapura and Ramanna Nikaya were unified as the Amarapura–Rāmañña Nikāya, making it the largest Buddhist fraternity in Sri Lanka.

The caste systems in Sri Lanka are social stratification systems found among the ethnic groups of the island since ancient times. The models are similar to those found in Continental India, but are less extensive and important for various reasons. Modern times Sri Lanka is often considered to be a casteless society in south asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radala</span> Sinhala aristocratic subcaste of the Govigamas, traditionally of the Kandy region in Sri Lanka

Radala refers to a small minority group in Sri Lanka in the former provinces of the Kingdom of Kandy, who are either descendants of chiefs and courtiers of the King of Kandy of Nayaks of Kandy or descendants of native headmen appointed by the British colonial administration following the Uva Rebellion in 1818.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ceylonese Mudaliyars</span>

Mudaliyar was a Ceylonese colonial title during Portuguese and British rule of the island. Stemming from the native headman system, the title was usually hereditary, made to wealthy influential families loyal to the British Crown.

Hēna, also Radā, is a minority Sinhalese caste. "Rajas" means dirt in Sinhala and Pali or Sanskrit and "Rajaka" means the removers of dirt. They collected cloths by traveling home to home of higher castes but now that was obsolete in Sri Lanka.but still they performs several rituals in the weddings and the females of this caste performs vital role in the puberty rituals of Radala and Govigama people in some areas of Sri Lanka. They called "Redi nanda" for females and "Hene mama" for males by the Sri Lankan society because they were given some respect unlike the other Asian countries due to the influence of buddhism in early periods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">British Ceylon</span> British Crown colony (1796–1948); now Sri Lanka

British Ceylon, officially British Settlements and Territories in the Island of Ceylon with its Dependencies from 1802 to 1833, then the Island of Ceylon and its Territories and Dependencies from 1833 to 1931 and finally the Island of Ceylon and its Dependencies from 1931 to 1948, was the British Crown colony of present-day Sri Lanka between 1796 and 4 February 1948. Initially, the area it covered did not include the Kingdom of Kandy, which was a protectorate, but from 1817 to 1948 the British possessions included the whole island of Ceylon, now the nation of Sri Lanka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Kandy</span> Kingdom on the island of Sri Lanka from 1469 to 1815

The Kingdom of Kandy was a monarchy on the island of Sri Lanka, located in the central and eastern portion of the island. It was founded in the late 15th century and endured until the early 19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nissanka Wijeyeratne</span> Sri Lankan diplomat

Deshamanya Nissanka Parakrama Wijeyeratne, known as Nissanka Wijeyeratne, was a Sri Lankan politician, civil servant, diplomat and English language poet. He was also the 17th Diyawadana Nilame of the Sri Dalada Maligawa, Kandy from 1975 to 1985. At the time of death he was serving as the chairman of The Law and Society Trust in Sri Lanka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walauwa</span> Term for a manor house in Sri Lanka

Walauwa or walawwa is the name given to a feudal/colonial manor house in Sri Lanka of a native headmen. It also refers to the feudal social systems that existed during the colonial era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">E. A. Nugawela</span> Ceylonese lawyer, soldier and politician

Major Edward "Eddie" Alexander Nugawela, ED was a Ceylonese lawyer, soldier and politician. He was the first Cabinet Minister of Education in independent Sri Lanka (1947–1954), later Cabinet Minister of Health (1954–1956), a Member of Parliament and State Council.

Social class in Sri Lanka is often described as casteless, though caste is still found on the island in both a symbolic and a practical sense. Caste is also used in an analogous sense to refer to the new social class divisions that have appeared in recent decades. The combination of ethnic nationalist movements that saw caste as an island-wide dividing tool, strong emphasis on providing access to education and healthcare regardless of background, and historic lack of discrimination among the colonial civil service played a factor in eradicating the caste system in most sectors of the island's society. Although the Buddhist culture actively fought against all forms of class discrimination, many Buddhist organizations used caste as a method to extract surplus from temple property.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of the Tooth</span> Temple complex in Kandy, Sri Lanka

Sri Dalada Maligawa, commonly known in English as the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic, is a Buddhist temple in Kandy, Sri Lanka. It is located in the Royal Palace Complex of the former Kingdom of Kandy, which houses the relic of the tooth of the Buddha. Since ancient times, the relic has played an important role in local politics because it is believed that whoever holds the relic holds the governance of the country. The relic was historically held by Sinhalese kings. The temple of the tooth is a World Heritage Site mainly due to the temple and the relic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maha Dissava</span> Sri Lankan title

The Mahâ Dissâvas was a Great Officer in the Amātya Mandalaya, or Sinhalese Council of State, in the Sinhalese Kingdoms of monarchical Sri Lanka. Like many of the existing high offices at the time it had combined legislative and judicial powers and functioned primarily equivalent to that of a Provincial governor. The office of Dissava was retained under the successive European colonial powers, namely the Portuguese Empire, the Dutch East India Company and the British Empire. A Dissava was the governor of a province known as a Disavanies. Within his province, the Dissava held both executive and judicial authority.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wariyapola Sri Sumangala</span>

Wariyapola Sri Sumangala was a Buddhist monk who lived in the early 19th century in Sri Lanka. He was an Anunayaka of the Asgiriya Chapter. Sri Sumangala is known for taking down the Union Jack and re-hoisting the Sinhalese lion flag, before the convention that handed over control of the island to the British in 1815. Later during the rebellion of 1818, he removed the Tooth Relic of the Buddha from the Temple of the Tooth, and handed it over to the leaders of the rebellion. He was arrested and convicted for treason the same year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Appuhamy</span> Sinhali Surname

Appuhamy, also referred as Appuhami,(Sinhala: අප්පුහාමි) from Appu (Gentleman) and Hami (Lord)(Hamie is a derivation of Sanskrit word Swami) is a Sinhala surname or an honorific term for men used traditionally between 14th and 20th centuries in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). It is also a term used for Dugganna Nilame of Kandyan era kings.

Rajamanthri Walauwa or manor house of Rajamanthri is situated in Karandagolla, Hanguranketha, Sri Lanka. Rajamanthri Walauwa is an eight-room, 200-year-old mansion built by the last Chief Minister of the Kingdom of Kandy in 1804. It was fully restored in 1944. During the early 1970s, Prince Gamini Rajamanthri and Prince Samantha Rajamanthri became the new inhabitants of the Rajamanthri Walauwa. To this day, the manor house is managed by Prince Julius' sons.

Asgiri Maha Viharaya is a Buddhist monastery located in Kandy, Sri Lanka. It is the headquarters of the Asgiriya chapter of Siyam Nikaya, one of the two Buddhist monasteries that holds the custodianship of sacred tooth relic of Buddha kept in Sri Dalada Maligawa, Kandy. The chief incumbent of the Asgiri Maha Viharaya is the Mahanayaka thero of Asgiri chapter of Siyam nikaya, a leading Buddhist monastic fraternity in Sri Lanka. The present chief incumbent of Asgiri Maha Viharaya is Warakagoda Sri Gnanarathana Thero. Asgiri Maha Vihara traces its origin from the Wanavasi sect of the Dimbulagala forest monastery of Polonnaruva. Currently, 565 Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka function under Asgiri Viharaya of Kandy.

References

  1. ↑ Hussein, Asiff (1 January 2001). The Lion and the Sword: An Ethnological Study of Sri Lanka. A. Hussein. p. 18. ISBN   9789559726203.
  2. ↑ Peebles, Patrick (22 October 2015). Historical Dictionary of Sri Lanka. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. ISBN   9781442255852.
  3. ↑ Fernando, Jude Lal (2013). Religion, Conflict and Peace in Sri Lanka: The Politics of Interpretation of Nationhoods. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 141–142. ISBN   9783643904287.
  4. ↑ "Rājākariya - Sri Lankan history". Encyclopedia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 20 July 1998. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  5. ↑ Silva, K. M. De; M, K. (2005). A History of Sri Lanka. Penguin Books India. p. 202. ISBN   9789558095928.
  6. ↑ Padmasiri, Kulasekera Mudiyanselage (1984). British Administration in the Kandyan Provinces of Sri Lanka, 1815-1833, With Special Reference to Social Change. University of London. p. 23.
  7. ↑ Brow, James; Weeramunda, Joe (1992). Agrarian change in Sri Lanka. Sage Publications. pp. 74–75. ISBN   9780803994157.
  8. ↑ Nyrop, Richard F. (1985). Sri Lanka: A Country Study. Vol. 550. Washington University: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 103.
  9. ↑ Spolia Zeylanica. National Museums of Sri Lanka. 1955. p. 209.
  10. ↑ Holt, John (13 April 2011). The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 296. ISBN   9780822349822.
  11. 1 2 Kapferer, Bruce (15 October 1997). The Feast of the Sorcerer: Practices of Consciousness and Power . University of Chicago Press. pp.  68. ISBN   9780226424132.
  12. 1 2 Obeyesekere, Gananath (1984). The cult of the goddess Pattini. University of Chicago Press. pp.  116–117. ISBN   9780226616025.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ↑ De Silva, Kingsley M. (2005). A history of Sri Lanka (Revised ed.). Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications. ISBN   955-8095-92-3. OCLC   470682746.
  14. ↑ Ariyapala, M. B. (1968). Society in mediaeval Ceylon : (The state of society in Ceylon as depicted in the Saddharmaratnāvaliya and other literature of the thirteenth century) : (2. print.). OCLC   468778864.
  15. ↑ Dharmasēna, Thera; Buddhaghosa (1991). Jewels of the doctrine : stories of the Saddharma ratnāvaliya. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN   0-7914-0489-7. OCLC   21147752.
  16. ↑ Hussein, Asiff (2013). Caste in Sri Lanka : from ancient times to the present day (1st ed.). Battaramulla: Neptune Publications. ISBN   978-955-0028-35-1. OCLC   863786412.
  17. ↑ Hussein, Asiff. (2009). Zeylanica : a study of the peoples and languages of Sri Lanka (1st ed.). Colombo: Neptune Publications. ISBN   978-955-0028-04-7. OCLC   463682982.
  18. ↑ Tilakartna, Gayan. "Land". Pathfinder Foundation (in Polish). Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  19. ↑ Dewasiri, Nirmal Ranjith (2008). The adaptable peasant : agrarian society in western Sri Lanka under Dutch rule, 1740–1800. Leiden: Brill. ISBN   978-90-474-3282-1. OCLC   654684668.
  20. 1 2 Knox, Robert (13 December 2004). An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies: Together with an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and Divers other Englishmen Now Living There, and of the Author's Miraculous Escape. Asian Educational Services. ISBN   81-206-1846-7. OCLC   57236571.
  21. ↑ Jayawickrama, Sarojini (1998). An historical relation of the Island Ceylon (Thesis). The University of Hong Kong Libraries. doi:10.5353/th_b3123864 (inactive 12 April 2024).{{cite thesis}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  22. ↑ A.Ramaswami, ed. (1967). Madras District Gazetteers: Salem. Vol. 1. Director of Stationery and Print. p. 129. They are popularly classed as kota balijas, who are military in origin and claim kinship with the Emperors and Viceroys of Vijayanagar and the Kandyan Dynasty.
  23. ↑ Pre-Nayake kings of Kandy (children of Kusuma Devi) and their marriages to south-Indian Nayakes
  24. ↑ Baldaeus, Philip (9 November 1996). "A Description of the Great and Most Famous Isle of Ceylon". Asian Educational Services. Retrieved 9 November 2023– via Google Books.
  25. ↑ "Suchergebnisse für "Search Sikh Spectrum" – Sikhspectrum". 11 August 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  26. ↑ Buddhism in Sinhalese Society, 1750–1900: A Study of Religious Revival and.... By Kitsiri Malalgoda, p. 84-87 & 91
  27. ↑ "Fonseka, the political arriviste–a historical irony" . Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  28. 1 2 "Asian Recipe". asian-recipe.com. 9 August 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  29. ↑ Sarkar, Jayanta; Ghosh, G. C. (9 November 2003). "Populations of the SAARC Countries: Bio-cultural Perspectives". Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved 9 November 2023– via Google Books.
  30. ↑ Dewasiri, Nirmal Ranjith (2008). The Adaptable Peasant. BRILL. p. 246. ISBN   978-9004165083.
  31. ↑ Raymond, Roel (27 February 2018). "Portuguese-Sri Lankan Surnames And Their Meanings". roar.media. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  32. ↑ The hybrid island : culture crossings and the invention of identity in Sri Lanka. Silva, Neluka. London: Zed Books. 2002. ISBN   1-84277-202-3. OCLC   48977638.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  33. ↑ Identity, consciousness and the past : forging of caste and community in India and Sri Lanka. Seneviratne, H. L., 1934-. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1997. ISBN   0-19-564001-2. OCLC   37130224.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  34. ↑ Yalman, Nur. (1967). Under the bo tree; studies in caste, kinship, and marriage in the interior of Ceylon . Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN   0-520-02054-5. OCLC   282805.
  35. ↑ "The Rajapaksas and Ruhuna". Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  36. ↑ "None" . Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  37. ↑ Nobodies to somebodies: the rise of the colonial bourgeoisie in Sri Lanka by Kumari Jayawardena (Zed Books) p.190-191 ISBN   1-84277-229-5
  38. ↑ "Chapter I". lakdiva.org.lk. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  39. ↑ Sridharan, K. (9 November 2000). Sea: Our Saviour. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-81-224-1245-1 . Retrieved 9 November 2023– via Google Books.
  40. ↑ "Pre-Vijayan Agriculture in Sri Lanka, by Prof. T. W. Wikramanayake" . Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  41. ↑ Social Change in Nineteenth Century Ceylon, pg 45, Patrick Peebles
  42. 1 2 3 "Premadasa Exceptionalism and challenges it currently faces..." Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  43. ↑ Exploring Confrontation; Sri Lanka:Politics, Culture & History, Pg166, Michael Roberts
  44. ↑ "infolanka.asia". infolanka.asia. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  45. ↑ Saga of Nilame and Kumarihamy by Lakmal Welabada. Sunday Observer (Sri Lanka), Retrieved on 10 December 2006.
  46. ↑ "Black July: A Note on Buddhism, Caste & The New Sinhalese Nationalism". 7 August 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  47. ↑ මීලඟ ජනාධිපති උඩරටින්. Lanka E News, Retrieved 13th June 2024
  48. ↑ "Left-leaning leader wins Sri Lanka election in political paradigm shift".
  49. ↑ "Caste in Sri Lanka – From Ancient Times to the Present Day" (PDF). Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  50. ↑ "How D.B. Wijetunga became Executive President of Sri Lanka".
  51. ↑ "මීලඟ ජනාධිපති උඩරටින්...?".

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.