Graelent is an Old French Breton lai, named after its protagonist. It is one of the so-called anonymous lais .
Graelent is an Old French Breton lai, named after its protagonist. It is one of the so-called anonymous lais .
The plot is similar to that of Marie de France's lai of Lanval . [1] Graelent, a knight of Brittany, rebuffs amorous advances from the queen, who retaliates by manipulating the king against him. Graelent's wages are suspended, reducing him to poverty. Graelent dejectedly rides into the forest, and while tracking a white hind (bisse blance v. 201; Mod. Fr.: biche blanche [lower-alpha 1] ), he stumbles upon a beautiful lady bathing in the fountain, attended by two maidens. Graelent sneaks up and clutches the articles of clothing she has disrobed upon a bush. The lady cries out his name, demanding their return. Graelent does not comply, and bargains for her to emerge from the fountain, and asks for her love.
She is at first scornful at the suggestion, but Graelent rapes her, and she then decides to help him. [lower-alpha 2] She would appear to him whenever he wills it, but the relationship must be kept a strict secret, and the couple are to abide in the country for one year while avoiding detection from comrades. Graelent receives from the lady a magnificent war horse, and large sums of gold and silver. He repays his debt to the burgess's hostel where he stayed, and begins entertaining many knights, regaling them with food and harpers' music. He spends other hours of the day and nights with his lady. Graelent is now extricated from financial difficulties, but another ordeal is awaiting.
A year goes by, and at the king's annual Pentecost feast, all present are expected to praise the beauty of the queen as being greater than any other that they know. Graelent refuses, blurting out that he knows a woman thirty times as beautiful. The enraged queen dares him to produce this woman on pain of punishment (on count of calumny), and the king orders him thrown in prison. The lady does not appear at his whim as she has always done before, and Graelent is struck by remorse, but gains no reprieve until the next Pentecostal feast, when he is given a last chance to ride out and find his lady. Graelent returns empty-handed, and resigns himself to trial, but just then beautiful damsels arrive in court, with the message that the lady will soon be present to acquit Graelent of his veracity.
Unlike Lanval, the "fairy mistress" [lower-alpha 3] here does not immediately take him back, and sets off on the journey back to her world beyond the river. Graelent follows mounted on the white horse she has given him, and ignoring her warning, begins to ford the river but is unhorsed and begins to drown. At the entreaty of her attendant damsel, the lady relents and pulls him up to safety. The couple disappear, never to be seen again. The horse left behind remains at the bank neighing after his master, and can still be heard at this time of year. [2] [3] [1]
Graelent is closely resembles the plotline to Lanval by Marie de France, and the texts are considered interrelated. However, there has been considerable disagreement over the years among commentators regarding their authorship, the chronological order, and mutual relationship. Graelent was initially published by as a work by Marie de France by Jean-Baptiste-Bonaventure de Roquefort in 1820, [4] and subsequently translated as one of her works by Eugene Mason (1911), but this attribution is considered erroneous. [5] [6]
Although some early scholars such as Gaston Paris (1889) considered Graelent to antedate Lanval, [7] and later William C. Stokoe, Jr. (1948) continued to argue it as the source of Lanval, many have voiced dissent, [lower-alpha 4] and the contrary opinion is the recent consensus, according to Glynn S. Burgess: [8] [9]
The definitive view of these three lays (the third being Guingamor ), chronologically and thematically, is that of R. N. Illingworth, who concluded that they were composed in the order Lanval, Graelent, and Guingamor, with Graelent and Guingamor (both anonymous) drawing on Lanval, but Guingamor also drawing on Graelent. Moreover, although the narratives were taken largely from Marie, the two anonymous lays integrated into their stories, independently of Marie, material stemming from "a nucleus of genuine Celtic tradition".
The protagonist robbing the bathing lady's garment is a common swan maiden folklore motif, and William Henry Schofield felt this was borrowed specifically from the story of Wayland the Smith, which survive in the Middle High German Friedrich von Schwaben and the Eddic poem Völundarkviða . [lower-alpha 5] [lower-alpha 6] [10] [11] Schofield also discerned borrowings from the Irish narrative Noinden Ulad ("Debility of the Ulstermen"). [12]
Graelent was translated into Old Norse as Grelent, one of the Strengleikar ; this text has value for tracing the textual history of the French lai. [13] In its turn, this translation seems to have influenced the Icelandic romance-saga Samsonar saga fagra and the rímur Skíðaríma , both of which include characters called Grelent. [14] The Middle English Sir Launfal by Thomas Chestre is considered a composite, based on Lanval with elements added from Graelent. [15]
Marie de France was a poet, possibly born in what is now France, who lived in England during the late 12th century. She lived and wrote at an unknown court, but she and her work were almost certainly known at the royal court of King Henry II of England. Virtually nothing is known of her life; both her given name and its geographical specification come from her manuscripts. However, one written description of her work and popularity from her own era still exists. She is considered by scholars to be the first woman known to write francophone verse.
The lais of Marie de France are a series of twelve short narrative Breton lais by the poet Marie de France. They are written in Anglo-Norman and were probably composed in the late 12th century, most likely between 1155-1170. The short, narrative poems generally focus on glorifying the concept of courtly love by the adventures of their main characters. Marie's lais are thought to form the basis for what would eventually become the genre known as the Breton lais. Despite her stature in Anglo-Norman literature and medieval French literature generally, little is known of Marie herself, but it is thought that she was born in France and wrote in England.
A Breton lai, also known as a narrative lay or simply a lay, is a form of medieval French and English romance literature. Lais are short, rhymed tales of love and chivalry, often involving supernatural and fairy-world Celtic motifs. The word "lay" or "lai" is thought to be derived from the Old High German and/or Old Middle German leich, which means play, melody, or song, or as suggested by Jack Zipes in The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales, the Irish word laid (song).
Thomas Chestre was the author of a 14th-century Middle English romance Sir Launfal, a verse romance of 1045 lines based ultimately on Marie de France's Breton lay Lanval. He was possibly also the author of the 2200-line Libeaus Desconus, a story of Sir Gawain's son Gingalain based upon similar traditions to those that inspired Renaut de Beaujeu's late-12th-century or early-13th-century Old French romance Le Bel Inconnu, and also possibly of a Middle English retelling of the mid-13th-century Old French romance Octavian. Geoffrey Chaucer parodied Libeaus Desconus, among other Middle English romances, in his Canterbury Tale of Sir Thopas.
Sir Launfal is a 1045-line Middle English romance or Breton lay written by Thomas Chestre dating from the late 14th century. It is based primarily on the 538-line Middle English poem Sir Landevale, which in turn was based on Marie de France's lai Lanval, written in a form of French understood in the courts of both England and France in the 12th century. Sir Launfal retains the basic story told by Marie and retold in Sir Landevale, augmented with material from an Old French lai Graelent and a lost romance that possibly featured a giant named Sir Valentyne. This is in line with Thomas Chestre's eclectic way of creating his poetry.
In the strictly academic context of Celtic studies, the term Celtic literature is used by Celticists to denote any number of bodies of literature written in a Celtic language, encompassing the Irish, Welsh, Cornish, Manx, Scottish Gaelic and Breton languages in either their modern or earlier forms.
"Bisclavret" is one of the twelve Lais of Marie de France written in the 12th century. Originally written in French, it tells the story of a werewolf who is trapped in lupine form by the treachery of his wife. The tale shares a common ancestry with the comparable Lay of Melion, and is probably referenced in Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur with the tale of Sir Marrok, who has a similar story.
Lanval is one of the Lais of Marie de France. Written in Anglo-Norman, it tells the story of Lanval, a knight at King Arthur's court, who is overlooked by the king, wooed by a fairy lady, given all manner of gifts by her, and subsequently refuses the advances of Queen Guinevere. The plot is complicated by Lanval's promise not to reveal the identity of his mistress, which he breaks when Guinevere accuses him of having "no desire for women". Before Arthur, Guinevere accuses Lanval of shaming her, and Arthur, in an extended judicial scene, demands that he reveal his mistress. Despite the broken promise, the fairy lover eventually appears to justify Lanval, and to take him with her to Avalon. The tale was popular, and was adapted into English as Sir Landevale, Sir Launfal, and Sir Lambewell.
Gradlon the Great was a semi-legendary 5th century "king" of Cornouaille who became the hero of many Breton folk stories. The most famous of these legends is the story of the sunken city of Ys. He is supposed to have been the son of Conan Meriadoc.
"Yonec" is one of the Lais of Marie de France, written in the twelfth century by the French poet known only as Marie de France. Yonec is a Breton lai, a type of narrative poem. The poem is written in the Anglo-Norman dialect of Old French in rhyming couplets of eight syllables each. This lai tells the story of a woman who seeks to escape a loveless marriage, and of the child born from the love that she found elsewhere.
"Milun" is a Breton lai by the medieval poet Marie de France,. Milun is the ninth lai in the collection known as the Lais of Marie de France. Like the other lais (lays) in this collection, Milun is written in the Anglo-Norman dialect of Old French, in couplets of eight syllables in length.
"Chevrefoil" is a Breton lai by the medieval poet Marie de France. The eleventh poem in the collection called The Lais of Marie de France, its subject is an episode from the romance of Tristan and Iseult. The title means "honeysuckle," a symbol of love in the poem. "Chevrefoil" consists of 118 lines and survives in two manuscripts, Harley 978 or MS H, which contains all the Lais, and in Bibliothèque Nationale, nouv. acq. fr. 1104, or MS S.
William Henry Schofield (1870–1920) was an American academic, founder of the Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature. He was professor of comparative literature at Harvard University, and president of the American-Scandinavian Foundation (1916–1919).
"Doon" is an anonymous Breton lai that tells the story of a knight, Doon, who must pass certain tests to win the hand of a maiden. They marry; but he returns to France alone. He is later reunited with the lady thanks to their grown son, whom he recognizes after dueling him at a tournament. This lai is very similar to "Milun" by Marie de France.
Tyolet is an anonymous Breton lai that takes place in the realm of King Arthur. It tells the tale of a naïve young knight who wins the hand of a maiden after a magical adventure.
'Lecheor' is a short, bawdy Breton lai that tells the story a group of noble women who decide to write a lai about female genitalia.
Melion is an anonymous Breton lai that tells the story of a knight who transforms into a werewolf for the love of his wife who betrays him.
Strengleikar is a collection of twenty-one Old Norse prose tales based on the Old French Lais of Marie de France. It is one of the literary works commissioned by King Haakon IV of Norway for the Norwegian court, and is counted among the Old Norse Chivalric sagas. The collection is anonymous. It has been attributed to Brother Robert, a cleric who adapted several French works into Norse under Haakon, the best known of which is Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar, but there is also reason to think that the collection may be a gathering of the work of several different translators. Unlike many medieval translations, the Strengleikar are generally extremely close in sense to the Old French originals; the text which differs most is Milun, which is abridged to half its original length.
Guingamor is an anonymous medieval lai about a knight who leaves the court of his uncle, a king, because the queen has sent him off to hunt for a white boar. By offering a reward for the boar's head, she hopes to get rid of the protagonist Guingamor, who has refused her sexual advances.
Desiré is an Old French Breton lai, named after its protagonist. It is one of the so-called Anonymous Lais. It is 'a fairy-mistress story set in Scotland'. Translated into Old Norse, the poem also became part of the Strengleikar, and the translation is relevant to establishing the archetype of the French text.