Horse tongue

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Horse sticking out its tongue Horses just want to have fun! (Unsplash).jpg
Horse sticking out its tongue

The horse tongue, similar to that of most mammals, is pink and plays a significant role in taste perception. Its long, narrow shape, characteristic of herbivorous animals, allows the horse to grasp food effectively with the assistance of its lips and teeth. The tongue is sensitive to pressure and temperature and is involved in activities such as licking and chewing. While a mare licks her foal extensively immediately after birth, there is limited research on the gustatory sensitivity of horses and the social functions of their tongues.

Contents

Equestrianism involves potential contact between the horse's tongue and a bit, necessitating precautions to prevent injury to this sensitive, highly vascularized organ. Compression from inappropriate bitting can cause the horse's tongue to turn white or blue, which may adversely affect the animal's overall health. The practice of tying down the tongues of racehorses is a topic of ongoing debate.

Anatomy

Horse tongue anatomy Horse tongue anatomy.jpg
Horse tongue anatomy

The horse possesses a long, narrow tongue that typically measures approximately 40 cm in length and 9.3 to 10.7 cm in width, with an average weight of around 1.2 kg. [1] [2] The tongue is composed of over a dozen muscles and is connected to surrounding tissues by a membrane known as the frenulum, [3] facilitating effective chewing. It is also richly supplied with blood vessels. [4] [3]

Structurally, the horse's tongue is thick and features a robust outer layer. The upper section, referred to as the dorsal lingual cartilage, contains muscle cells and adipose tissue, while the ventral surface is covered by a thinner layer. [5] The arrangement of muscle fibers in the tongue allows for a variety of movements. [5]

Notably, the Caspian horse differs from other studied horse breeds in that it lacks hyaline cartilage in its tongue. [5]

Taste buds

The horse's tongue features taste buds primarily located on the upper two-thirds of its surface. [5] [6] While these taste buds are present, [7] the majority serve mechanical or tactile functions rather than gustatory ones. Filiform taste buds, characterized by their short and thin, [6] finger-like shape, are found on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the tongue but are absent on the ventral surface. [8] These projections are equipped with fine keratinized threads that curve backward. [5] [8]

Interspersed among the filiform taste buds are fungiform taste buds, which are fewer in number and covered by a keratinized layer. Additionally, two large circumvallate taste buds are situated at the back of the tongue, near its root, while foliate taste buds are located near the palatoglossus muscle. [5]

Research conducted in 2000 by C. J. Pfeiffer, M. Levin, and M. A. F. Lopes identified localized groups of epidermal cells within the horse's tongue, notable for their high content of specific cytoplasmic granules, which may contribute to structural strength in relation to mechanical taste buds. [8]

Comparative anatomical studies indicate that the fine structure of the tongue in horses exhibits a more primitive pattern than that observed in goats and cattle. Specifically, horse filiform taste buds are long and thin, whereas those in goats and cattle are thicker. Additionally, horses possess two large circumvallate taste buds, while goats and cattle have 15 or more situated in the posterior region of the tongue. [9]

Glands

Groups of minor salivary glands are present between the muscle fibers and the lamina propria. Most lingual glands are mucous and most gustatory glands are serous. [5]

Physiology

The mechanical functions of the horse's tongue are moderate, influenced by its prehensile nature. [8] The anterior portion of the tongue works in conjunction with the incisors and lips to grasp vegetation. [3] Additionally, the tongue assists in maneuvering food toward the molars for effective chewing. [10] Horses can also partially clean their teeth using their tongues, dislodging food particles that may become stuck. The horse's tongue is sensitive to pressure, pain, and temperature, further contributing to its functional capabilities. [3]

Taste perception

A horse licking a salt stone Horse licks salt in the Altai Mountains 01.jpg
A horse licking a salt stone

The tongue allows horses to experience the sense of taste. [3] Similar to all mammals, this sense is closely linked to olfaction, enabling horses to perceive what Michel-Antoine Leblanc refers to as "flaveurs". [2]

Horses are reputed to possess a highly sensitive sense of taste, [8] although research on this topic is limited. It has been established that the presence of taste buds allows horses to sense the flavors of substances they touch with their tongues. [11] Like many mammals, horses respond to bitter, salty, sweet, acidic, and umami tastes, [2] as well as to their concentrations, which can trigger specific gustatory reactions. [11] There is no evidence to suggest that sensitivity to these tastes is localized to specific areas of the tongue. [6] Consequently, horses can taste various foods and may spit out those that are unpalatable. [11]

Sensitivity to flavors is crucial for horses to meet their nutritional needs. [6] Horses are particularly sensitive to sweet tastes, especially soluble carbohydrates, which provide essential energy for their brains. They also exhibit a strong sensitivity to salty tastes, likely due to their need to replenish sodium reserves, [6] with evidence indicating that horses may actively seek out salty foods in cases of deficiency. According to Leblanc, horses tend to avoid highly acidic substances to protect their teeth and show aversion to strong bitterness, helping them avoid potentially toxic plants. However, there is considerable variation in taste sensitivities among individual horses. [6] Research by Ronald Randa and colleagues tested foals for sensitivity to four basic flavors and found no consistent trends in sensitivity or preference across these flavors. [12] Generally, horses exhibit selective dietary preferences influenced by individual tastes. [13] Additionally, it is possible to induce aversions to toxic foods in horses through taste association. [14] Horses that experience negative biological effects after consuming a particular food may develop an aversion to that specific flavor. [2]

Tongue usages

Yawning Horse in Prem, Ilirska Bistrica.jpg
Yawning

According to ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer, horses utilize their tongues for various behaviors, including licking, chewing, submissive gestures, yawning, and drinking. [15] Unlike cattle, horses typically do not use their tongues for mutual grooming. [16] During close exploration, horses investigate new objects by sniffing them; if the scent is appealing, they may use their lips, whiskers, teeth, and tongue to touch and taste the object. [17]

A horse sticks its tongue out to the side in discomfort Spring in London (7119649373).jpg
A horse sticks its tongue out to the side in discomfort

When a horse extends its tongue to the side, this behavior typically indicates discomfort of varying degrees. [18] Additionally, if a horse opens its mouth, it may roll or protrude its tongue. [19]

Licking

Licking is a common behavior among horses, both in the wild and in captivity. Its primary function is to facilitate the absorption of minerals. For example, horses that groom each other may lick one another to absorb water that has settled on their coats. If a horse licks a human, this behavior may indicate an expectation of food or a deficiency in mineral salts. [15]

Systematic licking of objects in the horse's environment, such as stable walls, feed troughs, or metal bars, may occur before or after feeding. According to the Neugebauers, this behavior may signal a lack of food or stimulation and can develop into a behavioral disorder. [20] Systematic licking is indicative of a stereotypy, or stable vice, [21] and differs from normal licking in its repetitive nature, making it difficult to eradicate. [22]

In addition to the sense of smell, taste may play a role in the bond between a foal and its mother, as suggested by Belgian researcher Franck Ödberg. [11] Immediately after birth, the mare licks her foal extensively, providing her with a gustatory experience of the foal's coat, which appears to strengthen their bond. [11] During the breeding season, stallions may lick a mare's urine. [15]

Chewing

Chewing in horses is a combination of licking and mastication, during which the mouth is open and the tongue is visible, leading to saliva secretion. [21] This behavior can serve multiple purposes and convey various meanings, including submission, relaxation, well-being, or discomfort. In their natural state, horses often chew while waiting for their turn to drink, [21] when standing and expressing relaxation after a rest, or as a way to soothe themselves and display submission to another horse. [23] When relaxed, a horse may engage in light chewing movements. [24]

In domestic settings, interpreting this behavior can be challenging due to its varied implications. [25] For example, a horse may chew when a rider approaches, when it receives contradictory signals, or when it experiences discomfort related to its riding equipment. [21] Additionally, a horse might chew following a positive learning experience, exhibiting a closed mouth and squinted eyes. [26]

Snapping

Snapping behavior Snapping Horse.jpg
Snapping behavior
External video
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg [Demonstration of a foal clacking]

Snapping or clacking is a submissive signal in which a horse snaps its jaws and shows its tongue, accompanied by slight chewing movements. [27] This behavior is often exhibited by foals and young horses towards adult horses. The posture of the young horse resembles that of suckling, producing sucking noises in rhythm with the clicking of its tongue against the roof of its mouth. [27] Ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer interpret this behavior as a form of self-soothing and an invitation to play. [28]

This behavior is typically not present in adult horses that have been raised among their peers. However, it can persist in domestic horses that have not fully learned the social behaviors typical of their species and may be directed toward humans. [28]

Diseases and tics

The horse tongue can be affected by various illnesses and can be mobilized during tics or stereotypies.

Tics

Certain tongue-related behaviors in horses may lack specific functions and resemble tics or stereotypies, indicating unsuitable living conditions and a need for care. [26] [29] One such tic involves the horse extending its tongue out of its mouth and twirling it while displaying a detached facial expression, suggesting a lack of stimulation in its environment. Another tic involves tongue-pulling or hanging, which can occur with or without a bit in the mouth and may indicate the presence of heavy-handed riding. [26] [29] These tics can also manifest in horses with a bit, often leading to a significant commercial devaluation of the animal. However, the presence of tics with a bit does not inherently indicate a physical health problem, such as an injury. [22]

In a study of 52 horses exhibiting tics, five were found to display lip and/or tongue stereotypies. [30]

Diseases affecting the tongue

Infections of the horse's tongue can occur, such as one caused by the bacterium Actinobacillus lignieresii, which most commonly affects cattle, as reported in 1984. [31]

The tongue can also develop tumors, [32] with rare cases of vascular hamartoma, typically benign growths. [33] A case of rhabdomyosarcoma, on the tongue of a five-year-old Quarter Horse mare, was studied in 1993. [34] In 2014, the first case of adenocarcinoma, a malignant tumor that affected a third of the dorsal part of the tongue of an elderly horse, was cited in the scientific literature. [35]

In one case, a five-year-old mare was examined for a soft mass on the dorsal left side of the tongue. Subsequently, numerous similar, coalescing masses developed along this area, extending to the tip of the tongue. The nature of this proliferation of perineal cells remains uncertain regarding its neoplastic characteristics. [36]

Human intervention in the horse tongue

A horse tongue extended and held by a human hand. Horse tongue J1.JPG
A horse tongue extended and held by a human hand.

Grabbing a horse's tongue is a commonly recognized method for immobilizing the animal; however, care must be taken to avoid rough handling. [37] [3] Some authors suggest that stretching the tongue to the side can help desensitize it, while others caution against this practice due to the sensory issues it may cause. [38] [39]

The horse tongue is highly sensitive, and therefore vulnerable to injury. [3] [40] The main cause of lingual injuries in horses is from mishandling or accidents related to a bit. [3] A horse's tongue may hang over the bit for various reasons, particularly if the rider's hand is too heavy or if the bit is ill-suited to the horse's mouth, leading to a lack of control. In such cases, the horse may allow its tongue to hang out to the side. [41] This behavior is to be distinguished from tongue stereotypies, as its origin is not the same. [42] To mitigate this issue, "snaffle" bits and anti-tongue breakers can be added to the mouthpiece. [43]

Tongue injuries and compressions caused by biting

Horse showing severe discomfort with this bit Close up image of a horse during the Sovereign's Parade MOD 45148591.jpg
Horse showing severe discomfort with this bit

The main cause of tongue injuries in horses is the use of the bit during riding, whether due to the actions of the rider's hands or to unsuitable equipment. [3] A minority of tongue injuries can result from contact with sharp molars, necessitating intervention by an equine dentist. [44]

When the vascularity of a horse's tongue is compromised by the bit, the tongue's color may change. [4] Dr. Jacques Laurent identifies three possible forms of vascular changes in the horse's tongue:

Laurent suggests that prolonged compromised vascularization can result in lingual amyotrophy and impaired sensitivity, both epi-critical and deep. [4]

Swedish dressage horse rider Patrik Kittel has been noted for riding horses whose tongues exhibited a blue coloration, specifically Akeem Foldager in 2014 [45] [46] [47] and Watermill Scandic in 2009. [47] The situation generated discussion within the equestrian community, although Kittel was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing by the Fédération Équestre Internationale. [48] [49]

Tongue-tying

Tongue tie of a racehorse at the Josselin racecourse, France, in 2019 Attache de langue galopeur.jpg
Tongue tie of a racehorse at the Josselin racecourse, France, in 2019

In racing, it is common practice to tie a racehorse's tongue to enhance control over the animal and due to the belief that this may facilitate easier breathing. [50] [51] [52] The tongue tie is typically made using materials such as nylon stockings, elastic bands, or pieces of leather. [53] The procedure involves grasping the horse's tongue to position the tie, which is then fastened around the lower jaw. While some countries, such as Germany, have banned the practice altogether, it remains permitted in Australia, where approximately 20% of racehorses are affected. [53]

However, tongue-tying can cause injuries to horses. Reports indicate that over half of users observe a change in the color of the horse's tongue, with 8.6% noting cuts, and 2.9% reporting irreparable nerve damage. [52] Importantly, there is no evidence that tying the tongue of a racehorse without pre-existing health issues improves breathing, either at rest or during racing. [51] [54] [55]

The practice may provide benefits for horses suffering from respiratory obstructions, such as dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP). [51] [54] Research indicates that a tied tongue can reduce the depth of the thyroid cartilage and basihyoid bone compared to an untied tongue, significantly affecting the positions of these structures and potentially impacting the upper respiratory tract. [50] However, there is no evidence that tongue attachment can alter upper respiratory tract mechanics after sternothyrohyoid myectomy (cutting of certain muscles) in clinically normal horses. [56]

Statistical analyses of racehorses in the United Kingdom suggest that those with tongue ties may perform better than those without. [57]

See also

Related Research Articles

Dysgeusia, also known as parageusia, is a distortion of the sense of taste. Dysgeusia is also often associated with ageusia, which is the complete lack of taste, and hypogeusia, which is a decrease in taste sensitivity. An alteration in taste or smell may be a secondary process in various disease states, or it may be the primary symptom. The distortion in the sense of taste is the only symptom, and diagnosis is usually complicated since the sense of taste is tied together with other sensory systems. Common causes of dysgeusia include chemotherapy, asthma treatment with albuterol, and zinc deficiency. Liver disease, hypothyroidism, and rarely, certain types of seizures can also lead to dysgeusia. Different drugs can also be responsible for altering taste and resulting in dysgeusia. Due to the variety of causes of dysgeusia, there are many possible treatments that are effective in alleviating or terminating the symptoms. These include artificial saliva, pilocarpine, zinc supplementation, alterations in drug therapy, and alpha lipoic acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taste bud</span> Taste receptor cells

Taste buds are clusters of taste receptor cells, which are also known as gustatory cells. The taste receptors are located around the small structures known as papillae found on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, the cheek, and epiglottis. These structures are involved in detecting the five elements of taste perception: saltiness, sourness, bitterness, sweetness and savoriness (umami). A popular assumption assigns these different tastes to different regions of the tongue; in actuality, these tastes can be detected by any area of the tongue. Via small openings in the tongue epithelium, called taste pores, parts of the food dissolved in saliva come into contact with the taste receptors. These are located on top of the taste receptor cells that constitute the taste buds. The taste receptor cells send information detected by clusters of various receptors and ion channels to the gustatory areas of the brain via the seventh, ninth and tenth cranial nerves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Licking</span> Action of passing the tongue over a surface

Licking is the action of passing the tongue over a surface, typically either to deposit saliva onto the surface, or to collect liquid, food or minerals onto the tongue for ingestion, or to communicate with other animals. Many animals both groom themselves, eat or drink by licking.

A stereotypy is a repetitive or ritualistic movement, posture, or utterance. Stereotypies may be simple movements such as body rocking, or complex, such as self-caressing, crossing and uncrossing of legs, and marching in place. They are found especially in people with autism spectrum disorders, visually impaired children, and are also found in intellectual disabilities, tardive dyskinesia and stereotypic movement disorder, yet may also be encountered in neurotypical individuals as well. Studies have shown stereotypies to be associated with some types of schizophrenia. Frontotemporal dementia is also a common neurological cause of repetitive behaviors and stereotypies. A number of causes have been hypothesized for stereotypy, and several treatment options are available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chorda tympani</span> Nerve carrying taste sensations

Chorda tympani is a branch of the facial nerve that carries gustatory (taste) sensory innervation from the front of the tongue and parasympathetic (secretomotor) innervation to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flunixin</span> NSAID analgesic veterinary drug

Flunixin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), analgesic, and antipyretic used in horses, cattle and pigs. It is often formulated as the meglumine salt. In the United States, it is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and may only be lawfully distributed by order of a licensed veterinarian. There are many trade names for the product.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carprofen</span> Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

Carprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the carbazole and propionic acid class that was previously for use in humans and animals but is now only available to veterinarians for prescribing as a supportive treatment for various conditions in animals. Carprofen reduces inflammation by inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2; its specificity for COX-2 varies from species to species. Marketed under many brand names worldwide, carprofen is used as a treatment for inflammation and pain, including joint pain and postoperative pain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cribbing (horse)</span> Stable vice in horses

Cribbing is a form of stereotypy, otherwise known as wind sucking or crib-biting. Cribbing is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior seen in some horses, and is often labelled a stable vice. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability.

Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy is a hereditary glycogen storage disease of horses that causes exertional rhabdomyolysis. It is currently known to affect the following breeds American Quarter Horses, American Paint Horses, Warmbloods, Cobs, Dales Ponies, Thoroughbreds, Arabians, New Forest ponies, and a large number of Heavy horse breeds. While incurable, PSSM can be managed with appropriate diet and exercise. There are currently 2 subtypes, known as Type 1 PSSM and Type 2 PSSM.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tongue-tie (tack)</span>

A tongue-tie is a piece of equipment used by equestrians to prevent a horse from getting its tongue over the bit, which would make the animal very difficult to control. It is usually a strip of cloth or rubber, passed through the mouth and tied below the chin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stable vices</span> Undesirable behaviors in horses resulting from captivity

Stable vices are stereotypies of equines, especially horses. They are usually undesirable habits that often develop as a result of being confined in a stable with boredom, hunger, isolation, excess energy, or insufficient exercise. They present a management issue, not only leading to facility damage from chewing, kicking, and repetitive motion, but also leading to health consequences for the animal if not addressed. They also raise animal welfare concerns.

Lameness is an abnormal gait or stance of an animal that is the result of dysfunction of the locomotor system. In the horse, it is most commonly caused by pain, but can be due to neurologic or mechanical dysfunction. Lameness is a common veterinary problem in racehorses, sport horses, and pleasure horses. It is one of the most costly health problems for the equine industry, both monetarily for the cost of diagnosis and treatment, and for the cost of time off resulting in loss-of-use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gustatory nucleus</span> Rostral part of the solitary nucleus located in the medulla

The gustatory nucleus is the rostral part of the solitary nucleus located in the medulla oblongata. The gustatory nucleus is associated with the sense of taste and has two sections, the rostral and lateral regions. A close association between the gustatory nucleus and visceral information exists for this function in the gustatory system, assisting in homeostasis - via the identification of food that might be possibly poisonous or harmful for the body. There are many gustatory nuclei in the brain stem. Each of these nuclei corresponds to three cranial nerves, the facial nerve (VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and the vagus nerve (X) and GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in its functionality. All visceral afferents in the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves first arrive in the nucleus of the solitary tract and information from the gustatory system can then be relayed to the thalamus and cortex.

The primary gustatory cortex (GC) is a brain structure responsible for the perception of taste. It consists of two substructures: the anterior insula on the insular lobe and the frontal operculum on the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe. Because of its composition the primary gustatory cortex is sometimes referred to in literature as the AI/FO(Anterior Insula/Frontal Operculum). By using extracellular unit recording techniques, scientists have elucidated that neurons in the AI/FO respond to sweetness, saltiness, bitterness, and sourness, and they code the intensity of the taste stimulus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taste</span> Sense of chemicals on the tongue

The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste (flavor). Taste is the perception stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with the sense of smell and trigeminal nerve stimulation, determines flavors of food and other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas, including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lingual papillae</span> Structure giving the tongue its characteristic rough texture

Lingual papillae are small structures on the upper surface of the tongue that give it its characteristic rough texture. The four types of papillae on the human tongue have different structures and are accordingly classified as circumvallate, fungiform, filiform, and foliate. All except the filiform papillae are associated with taste buds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lignophagia</span> Consumption of wood

Lignophagia is the abnormal behaviour of chewing and eating wood. It has been recorded in several species, but perhaps most commonly in horses where it is usually called, simply, "wood chewing". Lignophagia is a form of the pica disorder, in which normally non-nutritive substances are chewed or eaten. For some animals, wood is the normal primary food source; such animals are known as being xylophagous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horse body mass</span> Horse body weight and weight measurement

The horse body mass is highly variable, depending on breed, model, physiological state, condition, owner's purpose and usage of the animal. Always 65 % to 75 % water, it is divided on average between 50 % muscle, 11 % bone and 10 % fat. Depending on whether it's a pony or a draft horse, it can range from less than 200 kg to over a ton, with an average of 500 kg for saddle horses. It also differs with the season, as horses are almost always fatter in summer than in winter. Various tools are used to estimate their weight and body condition, and veterinary scales have been created to determine whether a horse has an ideal body mass according to precise criteria. Thinness is associated with mistreatment, but owner-independent factors such as age and illness can cause dramatic weight loss in horses. In Western countries, equine obesity is one of the major veterinary health problems of the 21st century. It is directly linked to numerous pathologies, such as laminitis, osteoarthritis, insulin resistance and colic. It also favors the development of equine Cushing's disease, and causes a drop in stallion fertility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horse pain caused by the bit</span> Injury caused by horse tack

Horse pain caused by the bit refers to the various painful sensations of varying intensity and duration that horses may experience from the use of a bit during riding, due to poor adaptation of the equipment to their morphology or excessive stress. These pains are frequently associated with oral lesions, particularly in the corners of the mouth, interdental spaces, premolars and tongue. Rarely visible from the outside, for example through hemorrhage, these lesions receive little attention. Pain and lesions are accompanied by fear and anxiety in the animal. They potentially concern all horses wearing a bit manipulated by a human being via reins, whether mounted or harnessed, in particular by the application of great tension in these reins.

References

  1. ↑ Leblanc (2019 , p. 121-122)
  2. 1 2 3 4 Leblanc (2019 , p. 121)
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Clark, Aimi (2016). "14 facts you need to know about your horse's tongue". Horse & Hound. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Laurent, Jacques (2014). "Comment se constitue le phénomène de la « langue bleue ?". Cheval Savoir (in French). Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rezaian, M. (2006). "Absence of Hyaline Cartilage in the Tongue of 'Caspian Miniature Horse'". Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia. 35 (4): 241–246. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0264.2005.00673.x. ISSN   1439-0264. PMID   16836588 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
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  7. ↑ Fraser (2010 , p. 23)
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Pfeiffer, Levin & Lopes (2000 , p. 37)
  9. ↑ Kobayashi, K.; Jackowiak, H.; Frackowiak, H.; Yoshimura, K. (2005). "Comparative morphological study on the tongue and lingual papillae of horses (Perissodactyla) and selected ruminantia (Artiodactyla)". Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology = Archivio Italiano di Anatomia ed Embriologia. 110 (2): 55–63. ISSN   2038-5129. PMID   16101021 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
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  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Leblanc & Bouissou (2021 , p. 86)
  12. ↑ Leblanc (2019 , p. 123)
  13. ↑ Leblanc (2019 , p. 124)
  14. ↑ Leblanc (2019 , p. 125)
  15. 1 2 3 Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 202)
  16. ↑ Fraser (2010 , p. 3)
  17. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 133)
  18. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 135)
  19. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 188)
  20. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 202-203)
  21. 1 2 3 4 Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 203)
  22. 1 2 Fraser (2010 , p. 197)
  23. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 117)
  24. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 88-89)
  25. ↑ Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 203-204)
  26. 1 2 3 Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 204)
  27. 1 2 Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 256)
  28. 1 2 Neugebauer & Neugebauer (2012 , p. 257)
  29. 1 2 Zeitler-Feicht (2003 , p. 141)
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  31. ↑ Baum, K. H.; Shin, S. J.; Rebhun, W. C.; Patten, V. H. (1984). "Isolation of Actinobacillus lignieresii from enlarged tongue of a horse". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 185 (7): 792–793. ISSN   1943-569X. PMID   6490508 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  32. ↑ Schneider, A.; Tessier, C.; Gorgas, D.; Kircher, P. (2010). "Magnetic resonance imaging features of a benign peripheral nerve sheath tumour with 'ancient' changes in the tongue of a horse". Equine Veterinary Education. 22 (7): 346–351. doi:10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00088.x. ISSN   2042-3292 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  33. ↑ Brunson, Brandon L.; Taintor, Jennifer; Newton, Joseph; Schumacher, John (2006). "Vascular hamartoma in the tongue of a horse". Journal of Equine Veterinary Science. 26 (6): 275–277. doi:10.1016/j.jevs.2006.04.010. ISSN   0737-0806 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  34. ↑ Hanson, P. D; Frisbie, D. D.; Dubielzig, R. R.; Markel, M. D. (1993). "Rhabdomyosarcoma of the tongue in a horse". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 202 (8): 1281–1284. ISSN   1943-569X. PMID   8496087 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  35. ↑ Laus, Fulvio; Rossi, Giacomo; Paggi, Emanuele; Bordicchia, Matteo (2014). "Adenocarcinoma Involving the Tongue and the Epiglottis in a Horse". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 76 (3): 467–470. doi:10.1292/jvms.13-0417. PMC   4013378 . PMID   24284972 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  36. ↑ Vashisht, K.; Rock, R. W.; Summers, B. A. (2007). "Multiple Masses in a Horse's Tongue Resulting from an Atypical Perineurial Cell Proliferative Disorder". Veterinary Pathology. 44 (3): 398–402. doi: 10.1354/vp.44-3-398 . ISSN   0300-9858. PMID   17491087.
  37. ↑ Fraser (2010 , p. 186)
  38. ↑ Honnay, Melissa (2015). Apprendre le cheval pour mieux le comprendre (in French). Editions Edilivre. ISBN   978-2-332-86389-8.
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  40. ↑ Kitchener, Nicole (2019). "Everything You Need to Know About the Equine Tongue". Horse Canada. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  41. ↑ Zeitler-Feicht (2003 , p. 187)
  42. ↑ Zeitler-Feicht (2003 , p. 142)
  43. ↑ Ancelet, Catherine (2006). Les fondamentaux de l'équitation : galops 1 à 4 : programme officiel (in French). Paris: Amphora. p. 336. ISBN   2-85180-707-2. OCLC   421687899.
  44. ↑ Fraser (2010 , p. 226)
  45. ↑ Tsaag Valren, Amélie; Bataille, Lætitia. "Maltraitance : la langue bleue d'Akeem Foldager". Cheval Savoir (in French). Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  46. ↑ Heath, Sophia (2015). "Andreas Helgstrand guilty of 'improper use of bit and bridle'". Horse & Hound. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  47. 1 2 Heath, Sophia (2014). "'Blue tongue' leads to social media outrage". Horse & Hound. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  48. ↑ Tsaag Valren, Amélie (2014). "Aux JEM : une nouvelle affaire de langue bleue". Cheval Savoir (in French). Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  49. ↑ "Patrick Kittel escapes disciplinary action by FEI over 'blue tongue'". Horse & Hound. 2010. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  50. 1 2 Chalmers, H. J.; Farberman, A.; Bermingham, A.; Sears, W. (2013). "The use of a tongue tie alters laryngohyoid position in the standing horse". Equine Veterinary Journal. 45 (6): 711–714. doi:10.1111/evj.12056. ISSN   2042-3306. PMID   24117933 . Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  51. 1 2 3 Franklin, S. H.; Naylor, J. R. J.; Lane, J. G. (2010). "The effect of a tongue-tie in horses with dorsal displacement of the soft palate". Equine Veterinary Journal. 34 (34): 430–433. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05461.x . ISSN   2042-3306. PMID   12405729.
  52. 1 2 Weller et al. (2021 , p. 622)
  53. 1 2 McGreevy, Paul; Franklin, Samantha (2018). "Over 20% of Australian horses race with their tongues tied to their lower jaw". The Conversation. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  54. 1 2 Cornelisse, Cornelis J.; HolcombeS, Susan J.; Derksen, Frederik J.; Berney, Cathy (2001). "Effect of a tongue-tie on upper airway mechanics in horses during exercise". American Journal of Veterinary Research. 62 (5): 775–778. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.775 . PMID   11341402 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  55. ↑ Cornelisse, Cornelis J.; Rosenstein, Diana S.; Derksen, Frederik J.; Holcombe, Susan J. (2001). "Computed tomographic study of the effect of a tongue-tie on hyoid apparatus position and nasopharyngeal dimensions in anesthetized horses". American Journal of Veterinary Research. 62 (12): 1865–1869. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1865 . PMID   11763172 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  56. ↑ Beard, Warren L.; Holcombe, Susan J.; Hinchcliff, Kenneth W. (2001). "Effect of a tongue-tie on upper airway mechanics during exercise following sternothyrohyoid myectomy in clinically normal horses". American Journal of Veterinary Research. 62 (5): 779–782. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.779 . PMID   11341403 . Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  57. ↑ Barakzai, S. Z.; Finnegan, C.; Boden, L. A. (2009). "Effect of 'tongue tie' use on racing performance of Thoroughbreds in the United Kingdom". Equine Veterinary Journal. 41 (8): 812–816. doi: 10.2746/042516409X434134 . ISSN   2042-3306. PMID   20095231.

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