India Stack is a marketing term coined by iSPIRT (Indian Software Product Industry Round Table) to brand a collection of government-operated digital infrastructure systems in India as a unified platform.[1] The term encompasses identity verification (Aadhaar), payments (UPI), document storage (DigiLocker), and data sharing layers--each governed by separate government bodies with distinct legal frameworks.
The systems have achieved significant scale, with UPI processing over 10billion monthly transactions and Aadhaar covering 1.4billion residents. However, the platform has faced sustained criticism regarding welfare exclusion linked to biometric authentication failures, privacy and surveillance concerns, and the gap between "open" branding and closed, proprietary governance.[1][2]
Origin of the term
The term "India Stack" was coined by iSPIRT, a technology industry think tank co-founded by Sharad Sharma in 2013. iSPIRT positioned the branding to describe separate government systems as a unified, exportable model of "digital public infrastructure" (DPI).[3]
Critics characterise "India Stack" as a PR construct--branding separate closed systems as unified "open" infrastructure for international promotion. Each component (Aadhaar under UIDAI, UPI under NPCI, DigiLocker under MeitY, ABDM under NHA) is closed-source and separately governed; the unified branding suggests cohesion and openness while the underlying systems remain proprietary and siloed.[4]
Unlike open protocols such as HTTP, email, or TCP/IP where anyone can implement independently, India Stack requires permission at every layer. There is no public RFC process, no citizen representation on technical committees, and no mechanism to challenge design decisions before deployment.[6]
Researchers note this differs fundamentally from both the IETF model of "rough consensus and running code" and FOSS contribution models where rejected proposals can still be implemented independently. In India Stack, if a proposal is rejected, there is no alternative--the gatekeeper's decision is final.[4]
Scale and adoption
India Stack components have achieved significant transaction volumes:
UPI: Over 10billion monthly transactions by 2023[7]
Aadhaar: 1.4billion enrolments
DigiLocker: Over 150million registered users
Proponents credit India Stack with expanding financial inclusion through Jan Dhan bank accounts, reducing subsidy leakage through Direct Benefit Transfer, and enabling digital service delivery.
Aadhaar-based biometric authentication for welfare distribution has been linked to documented exclusions and deaths. Research by economists including Reetika Khera of IIT Delhi has found significant exclusion of genuine beneficiaries.[8]
Key findings include:
Between 2013-2021, 4.39crore (43.9million) ration cards were deleted nationally
A 2020 J-PAL study found 88% of cancelled ration cards in Jharkhand belonged to genuine beneficiaries, not fraudulent "ghost" entries[9]
The Right to Food Campaign documented 57 starvation deaths in nine Indian states from 2015 onwards, with at least 19 directly linked to Aadhaar-related denial[10]
Of 42 hunger-related deaths documented between 2017-2019, 25 were linked to Aadhaar issues[11]
Documented cases include Santoshi Kumari (11, Jharkhand, 2017), Arjun Hembram (11, Odisha, 2023), and others.[8]
Human Rights Watch documented 2.5million families in Rajasthan denied ration supplies between September 2016 and June 2017 due to Aadhaar issues. The report also found children without Aadhaar excluded from government schools and hospitals demanding Aadhaar enrolment before issuing birth certificates.[2]
Biometric authentication failures
Studies have documented significant biometric authentication failure rates:[12]
6-12% fingerprint authentication failure rates among manual labourers, construction workers, and farmers
Fingerprints degrade due to age, manual labour, and certain medical conditions
Elderly people have degraded fingerprints; children's biometrics are unstable
In 2023, UIDAI acknowledged 54+ hours of service downtime due to OTP delays and server issues
A 2018 analysis estimated that "two to five per cent of the Indian population would be excluded" due to biometric failures alone.[12]
Facial authentication expansion (2023-2025)
Despite documented fingerprint exclusion, states began adding facial authentication requirements. Rajasthan mandated facial authentication for pensioners via the RAJSSP app in February 2023. Data from January-April 2025 showed:[13]
Facial authentication success rate: 69.11% (nearly 1 in 3 fail)
Fingerprint authentication success rate: 76.27%
OTP had 90%+ success rate but was deemed "unreliable" by authorities
The system was tested on only 15-20 people before statewide rollout to 600,000+ pensioners in Jaipur district alone
Critics argue that consent is structurally compromised when Aadhaar authentication is mandatory for essential services. UIDAI claims authentication requires "explicit consent," but researchers note consent is meaningless when refusal means exclusion from:[8][14]
In September 2018, the court upheld Aadhaar's constitutional validity but struck down Section 57 allowing private sector use. The government subsequently amended laws through ordinances to restore private sector access.[17]
Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2018): Five-judge bench upheld Aadhaar's validity but struck down Section 57 (private sector use) and Section 33(2) (disclosure without judicial oversight)
Koili Devi v. Union of India: Petition filed by Santoshi Kumari's mother challenging deletion of ration cards
Orissa High Court (May 2023): Ruled welfare schemes cannot exclude on grounds of lacking Aadhaar or mobile phone
P. Pushpam v. UIDAI (Madras HC, 2025): Ruled Aadhaar correction is a fundamental right
e-KYC mandate (2024)
In June 2024, the government directed 100% e-KYC compliance for all ration card holders. Odisha suspended rice distribution for 20+ lakh (2million+) eligible individuals for e-KYC non-compliance. The Right to Food Campaign urged the government to halt e-KYC and remove exclusionary digital measures from PDS.[14]
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