Information behavior v. information practices debate
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Information behavior is a field of information science research that seeks to understand the way people search for and use information [1] in various contexts. It can include information seeking and information retrieval, but it also aims to understand why people seek information and how they use it. The term 'information behavior' was coined by Thomas D. Wilson in 1982 [2] and sparked controversy upon its introduction. [3] The term has now been adopted and Wilson's model of information behavior is widely cited in information behavior literature. [4] In 2000, Wilson defined information behavior as "the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information". [5]
A variety of theories of information behavior seek to understand the processes that surround information seeking. [6] An analysis of the most cited publications on information behavior during the early 21st century shows its theoretical nature. [7] Information behavior research can employ various research methodologies grounded in broader research paradigms from psychology, sociology and education. [8]
In 2003, a framework for information-seeking studies was introduced that aims to guide the production of clear, structured descriptions of research objects and positions information-seeking as a concept within information behavior. [9]
Information need is a concept introduced by Wilson. Understanding the information need of an individual involved three elements:
Information-seeking behavior is a more specific concept of information behavior. It specifically focuses on searching, finding, and retrieving information. Information-seeking behavior research can focus on improving information systems or, if it includes information need, can also focus on why the user behaves the way they do. A review study on information search behavior of users highlighted that behavioral factors, personal factors, product/service factors and situational factors affect information search behavior. [10] Information-seeking behavior can be more or less explicit on the part of users: users might seek to solve some task or to establish some piece of knowledge which can be found in the data in question, [11] or alternatively the search process itself is part of the objective of the user, in use cases for exploring visual content or for familiarising oneself with the content of an information service. [12] In the general case, information-seeking needs to be understood and analysed as a session rather than as a one-off transaction with a search engine, and in a broader context which includes user high-level intentions in addition to the immediate information need. [13]
User studies vs. usage studies
Introduced by Elfreda Chatman in 1987, [14] information poverty is informed by the understanding that information is not equally accessible to all people. Information poverty does not describe a lack of information, but rather a worldview in which one's own experiences inside their own small world may create a distrust in the information provided by those outside their own lived experiences. [14]
In Library and Information Science (LIS), a metatheory is described "a set of assumptions that orient and direct theorizing about a given phenomenon". [15] Library and information science researchers have adopted a number of different metatheories in their research. A common concern among LIS researchers, and a prominent discussion in the field, is the broad spectrum of theories that inform the study of information behavior, information users, or information use. This variation has been noted as a cause of concern because it makes individual studies difficult to compare or synthesize if they are not guided by the same theory. This sentiment has been expressed in studies of information behavior literature from the early 1980s [16] and more recent literature reviews have declared it necessary to refine their reviews to specific contexts or situations due to the sheer breadth of information behavior research available. [17]
Below are descriptions of some, but not all, metatheories that have guided LIS research.
A cognitive approach to understanding information behavior is grounded in psychology. It holds the assumption that a person's thinking influences how they seek, retrieve, and use information. Researchers that approach information behavior with the assumption that it is influenced by cognition, seek to understand what someone is thinking while they engage in information behavior and how those thoughts influence their behavior. [18]
Wilson's attempt to understand information-seeking behavior by defining information need includes a cognitive approach. Wilson theorizes that information behavior is influenced by the cognitive need of an individual. By understanding the cognitive information need of an individual, we may gain insight into their information behavior. [2]
Nigel Ford takes a cognitive approach to information-seeking, focusing on the intellectual processes of information-seeking. In 2004, Ford proposed an information-seeking model using a cognitive approach that focuses on how to improve information retrieval systems and serves to establish information-seeking and information behavior as concepts in and of themselves, rather than synonymous terms. [19]
The constructionist approach to information behavior has roots in the humanities and social sciences. It relies on social constructionism, which assumes that a person's information behavior is influenced by their experiences in society. [18] In order to understand information behavior, constructionist researchers must first understand the social discourse that surrounds the behavior. The most popular thinker referenced in constructionist information behavior research is Michel Foucault, who famously rejected the concept of a universal human nature. The constructionist approach to information behavior research creates space for contextualizing the behavior based on the social experiences of the individual.
One study that approaches information behavior research through the social constructionist approach is a study of the information behavior of a public library knitting group. [20] The authors use a collectivist theory to frame their research, which denies the universality of information behavior and focuses on "understanding the ways that discourse communities collectively construct information needs, seeking, sources, and uses". [20]
The constructivist approach is born out of education and sociology in which, "individuals are seen as actively constructing an understanding of their worlds, heavily influenced by the social world(s) in which they are operating". [18] Constructivist approaches to information behavior research generally treat the individual's reality as constructed within their own mind rather than built by the society in which they live. [21]
The constructivist metatheory makes space for the influence of society and culture with social constructivism, "which argues that, while the mind constructs reality in its relationship to the world, this mental process is significantly informed by influences received from societal conventions, history and interaction with significant others". [21]
A common concern among LIS researchers, and a prominent discussion in the field, is the broad spectrum of theories that inform LIS research. This variation has been noted as a cause of concern because it makes individual studies difficult to compare if they are not guided by the same theory. Recent studies have shown that the impact of these theories and theoretical models is very limited. [22] LIS researchers have applied concepts and theories from many disciplines, including sociology, psychology, communication, organizational behavior, and computer science. [23] [24]
The term was coined by Thomas D. Wilson in his 1981 paper, on the grounds that the current term, 'information needs' was unhelpful since 'need' could not be directly observed, while how people behaved in seeking information could be observed and investigated. [2] However, there is increasing work in the information-searching field that is relating behaviors to underlying needs. [25] In 2000, Wilson described information behavior as the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active and passive information-seeking, and information use. [5] He described information-seeking behavior as purposive seeking of information as a consequence of a need to satisfy some goal. Information-seeking behavior is the micro-level of behavior employed by the searcher in interacting with information systems of all kinds, be it between the seeker and the system, or the pure method of creating and following up on a search.
Thomas Wilson proposed that information behavior covers all aspects of human information behavior, whether active or passive. Information-seeking behavior is the act of actively seeking information in order to answer a specific query. Information-searching behavior is the behavior which stems from the searcher interacting with the system in question. Information use behavior pertains to the searcher adopting the knowledge they sought.
Elfreda Chatman developed the theory of life in the round, which she defines as a world of tolerated approximation. It acknowledges reality at its most routine, predictable enough that unless an initial problem should arise, there is no point in seeking information. [26] Chatman examined this principle within a small world: a world which imposes on its participants similar concerns and awareness of who is important; which ideas are relevant and whom to trust. Participants in this world are considered insiders. [26] Chatman focused her study on women at a maximum security prison. She learned that over time, prisoner's private views were assimilated to a communal acceptance of life in the round: a small world perceived in accordance with agreed upon standards and communal perspective. Members who live in the round will not cross the boundaries of their world to seek information unless it is critical; there is a collective expectation that information is relevant; or life lived in the round no longer functions. The world outside prison has secondary importance to inmates who are absent from this reality which is changing with time. [26]
This compares the internet search methods of experienced information seekers (navigators) and inexperienced information seekers (explorers). Navigators revisit domains; follow sequential searches and have few deviations or regressions within their search patterns and interactions. Explorers visit many domains; submit many questions and their search trails branch frequently. [27]
Brenda Dervin developed the concept of sensemaking. Sensemaking considers how we (attempt to) make sense of uncertain situations. [28] Her description of Sensemaking consisted of the definition of how we interpret information to use for our own information related decisions.
Brenda Dervin described sensemaking as a method through which people make sense of their worlds in their own language.
ASK was also developed by Nicholas J. Belkin.
An anomalous state of knowledge is one in which the searcher recognises a gap in the state of knowledge. This, his or her further hypothesis, is influential in studying why people start to search. [29]
McKenzie's model proposes that the information-seeking in everyday life of individuals occurs on a "continuum of information practices... from actively seeking out a known source... to being given un-asked for advice." [30] This model crosses the threshold in information-seeking studies from information behavior research to information practices research. Information practices research creates space for understanding encounters with information that may not be a result of the individual's behavior.[ citation needed ]
McKenzie's two-dimensional model includes four modes of information practices (active seeking, active scanning, non-directed monitoring, by proxy) over two phases of the information process (connecting and interacting). [30]
| Phase --> Mode (below) | Connecting | Interacting |
|---|---|---|
| Active-seeking | Actively seeking contact with an identified source in a specific information ground | Asking a pre-planned question; active questioning strategies, e.g. list-making |
| Active-scanning | Identifying a likely source; browsing in a likely information ground | Identifying an opportunity to ask a question; actively observing or listening |
| Non-directed monitoring | Serendipitous encounters in unexpected places | Observing or overhearing in unexpected settings, chatting with acquaintances |
| By proxy | Being identified as an information seeker; being referred to a source through a gatekeeper | Being told |
In library and information science, Information search process (ISP) is a model proposed by Carol Kuhlthau in 1991 that represents a tighter focus on information-seeking behavior. Kuhlthau's framework was based on research into high school students, [31] but extended over time to include a diverse range of people, including those in the workplace. It examined the role of emotions, specifically uncertainty, in the information-seeking process, concluding that many searches are abandoned due to an overwhelmingly high level of uncertainty. [32] [33] [34]
ISP is a 6-stage process, with each stage each encompassing 4 aspects: [35]
| Stage | Task | Thoughts | Feelings | Actions | Strategies |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Task initiation | Contemplating assignment, comprehending task, relating prior experience and knowledge, considering possible topics, recognizing the need for new information to complete an assignment | Apprehension of work ahead, uncertainty | Talking with others, brainstorming, browsing library | Brainstorming, discussing, contemplating possibilities, tolerating uncertainty [36] |
| 2 | Topic selection | Weighing topics against criteria such as personal interest, project requirements, information available, time available; predicting outcome of possible choices, choosing topic with potential for success | Confusion, sometimes anxiety, brief elation (after selection), anticipation of task | Consulting informal mediators, using reference collections, preliminary searches | Discussing possible topics, predicting outcomes of choices, gaining general overview of topic. When information retrieval occurs at this point, multiple rounds of query reformulation may result. [37] |
| 3 | Pre-focus exploration | Becoming informed about general topic, seeking focus in general information found, identifying possible foci, inability to express precise information needed. Information on the topic is gathered and new personal knowledge is created. [38] | Confusion, doubt, sometimes threat, uncertainty may return if the information seeker finds inconsistent or incompatible information. | Locating relevant information, reading to become informed, taking notes, making bibliographic citations, situate new information within previous understanding of the topic. | Reading to learn about topic, tolerating inconsistency and incompatibility of information encountered, intentionally seeking possible focus, listing descriptors |
| 4 | Focus formation | Predicting outcome of possible foci, using stage 2 task criteria, identifying ideas in information to form focus, sometimes characterised by a sudden moment of insight | Optimism, confidence of ability to complete task [38] | Reading notes for themes | Making a survey of notes, listing possible foci, choosing a focus while rejecting others OR combining several themes to form one focus. Formulation is considered to be the most important stage of the process. [36] The information seeker will here formulate a personalized construction of the topic from the general information gathered in the exploration phase. |
| 5 | Information collection | Seeking information to support focus, defining and extending focus through information, gathering pertinent information, organising information in notes | Realisation of extensive work to be done. Presented with a clearly focused, personalized topic, the information seeker will experience greater interest and increased confidence. [39] | Using library to collect pertinent information, requesting specific sources, taking detailed notes with bibliographic citations | Using descriptors to search out pertinent information, making comprehensive search of various types of materials i.e. reference, periodicals, non-fiction and biography, using indexes, requesting assistance of librarian |
| 6 | Search closure | Identify need for any additional information, considering time limit, diminishing relevance, increasing redundancy, exhausting resources | Sense of relief, sometimes satisfaction, sometimes disappointment | Re-checking information for information initially overlooked, confirming information and bibliographic citations | Returning to library to make search summary, keeping books until completion of writing to re-check information. |
Kuhlthau's work is constructivist and explores information-seeking beyond the user's cognitive experience into their emotional experience while seeking information. She finds that the process of information-searching begins with feelings of uncertainty, navigates through feelings of anxiety, confusion, or doubt, and ultimately completes their information-seeking with feelings of relief or satisfaction, or disappointment. The consideration of an information-seeker's affect has been replicated more recently in Keilty and Leazer's study which focuses on physical affect and esthetics instead of emotional affect. [41]
The usefuleness of the model has been re-evaluated in 2008. [42]
David Ellis investigated the behavior of researchers in the physical and social sciences, [43] and engineers and research scientists [44] through semi-structured interviews using a grounded theory approach, with a focus on describing the activities associated with information seeking rather than describing a process. Ellis' initial investigations produced six key activities within the information-seeking process:
Later studies by Ellis (focusing on academic researchers in other disciplines) resulted in the addition of two more activities[ citation needed ]:
Choo, Detlor and Turnbull elaborated on Ellis' model by applying it to information-searching on the web. Choo identified the key activities associated with Ellis in online searching episodes and connected them with four types of searching (undirected viewing, conditioned viewing, information search, and formal search). [45]
Developed by Stuart Card, Ed H. Chi and Peter Pirolli, this model is derived from anthropological theories and is comparable to foraging for food. Information seekers use clues (or information scents) such as links, summaries and images to estimate how close they are to target information. A scent must be obvious as users often browse aimlessly or look for specific information. Information foraging is descriptive of why people search in particular ways rather than how they search. [46]
Foster and Urquhart provide a rich understanding of their model for nonlinear information behavior. This model takes into consideration varying contexts and personalities when researching information behavior. The authors of this article are themselves cautious of this new model since it still requires more development. [47]
Reijo Savolainen published his ELIS model in 1995. It is based on three basic concepts: way of life, life domain and information search in everyday life (ELIS). [48]
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Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes with input from linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, computer science/artificial intelligence, and anthropology. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition. Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. One of the fundamental concepts of cognitive science is that "thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures."
Information retrieval (IR) in computing and information science is the task of identifying and retrieving information system resources that are relevant to an information need. The information need can be specified in the form of a search query. In the case of document retrieval, queries can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing. Information retrieval is the science of searching for information in a document, searching for documents themselves, and also searching for the metadata that describes data, and for databases of texts, images or sounds.
Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, imagination, intelligence, the formation of knowledge, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and computation, problem-solving and decision-making, comprehension and production of language. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and discover new knowledge.
Information science is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge in organizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems.
Browsing is a kind of orienting strategy. It is supposed to identify something of relevance for the browsing organism. In context of humans, it is a metaphor taken from the animal kingdom. It is used, for example, about people browsing open shelves in libraries, window shopping, or browsing databases or the Internet.
Karl Edward Weick is an American organizational theorist who introduced the concepts of "loose coupling", "mindfulness", and "sensemaking" into organizational studies. He is the Rensis Likert Distinguished University Professor at the Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan.
Marcia J. Bates is Professor VI Emerita of Information Studies in the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles.
Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both human and technological contexts. Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR).
The term information need is often understood as an individual or group's desire to locate and obtain information to satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. Rarely mentioned in general literature about needs, it is a common term in information science. According to Hjørland (1997) it is closely related to the concept of relevance: If something is relevant for a person in relation to a given task, we might say that the person needs the information for that task.
Nicholas J. Belkin is a professor at the School of Communication and Information at Rutgers University. Among the main themes of his research are digital libraries; information-seeking behaviors; and interaction between humans and information retrieval systems. Belkin is best known for his work on human-centered Information Retrieval and the hypothesis of Anomalous State of Knowledge (ASK). Belkin realized that in many cases, users of search systems are unable to precisely formulate what they need. They miss some vital knowledge to formulate their queries. In such cases it is more suitable to attempt to describe a user's anomalous state of knowledge than to ask the user to specify her/his need as a request to the system.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to information science:
Cognitive models of information retrieval rest on the mix of areas such as cognitive science, human-computer interaction, information retrieval, and library science. They describe the relationship between a person's cognitive model of the information sought and the organization of this information in an information system. These models attempt to understand how a person is searching for information so that the database and the search of this database can be designed in such a way as to best serve the user. Information retrieval may incorporate multiple tasks and cognitive problems, particularly because different people may have different methods for attempting to find this information and expect the information to be in different forms. Cognitive models of information retrieval may be attempts at something as apparently prosaic as improving search results or may be something more complex, such as attempting to create a database which can be queried with natural language search.
Collaborative information seeking (CIS) is a field of research that involves studying situations, motivations, and methods for people working in collaborative groups for information seeking projects, as well as building systems for supporting such activities. Such projects often involve information searching or information retrieval (IR), information gathering, and information sharing. Beyond that, CIS can extend to collaborative information synthesis and collaborative sense-making.
Elfreda Annmary Chatman (1942-2002) was an African-American researcher, professor, and former Catholic religious sister. She was well known for her ethnographic approaches in researching information seeking behaviors among understudied or minority groups.
The Structured Geospatial Analytic Method (SGAM) is both as an analytic method and pedagogy for the Geospatial Intelligence professional. This model was derived from and incorporates aspects of both Pirolli and Card’s sensemaking process and Richards Heuer’s Analysis of Competing Hypotheses model. This is a simplified view of the geospatial analytic process within the larger intelligence cycle.
A pathfinder is a bibliography created to help begin research in a particular topic or subject area.. Pathfinders produced by the Library of Congress are known as "tracer bullets". What is special about a pathfinder is that it only refers to the information in a specific location, i.e. the shelves of a local library.
Organizational Information Theory (OIT) is a communication theory, developed by Karl Weick, offering systemic insight into the processing and exchange of information within organizations and among its members. Unlike the past structure-centered theory, OIT focuses on the process of organizing in dynamic, information-rich environments. Given that, it contends that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members are instrumental to reduce equivocality and achieve sensemaking through some strategies — enactment, selection, and retention of information. With a framework that is interdisciplinary in nature, organizational information theory's desire to eliminate both ambiguity and complexity from workplace messaging builds upon earlier findings from general systems theory and phenomenology.
Evidence-based library and information practice (EBLIP) or evidence-based librarianship (EBL) is the use of evidence-based practices (EBP) in the field of library and information science (LIS). This means that all practical decisions made within LIS should 1) be based on research studies and 2) that these research studies are selected and interpreted according to some specific norms characteristic for EBP. Typically such norms disregard theoretical studies and qualitative studies and consider quantitative studies according to a narrow set of criteria of what counts as evidence. If such a narrow set of methodological criteria are not applied, it is better instead to speak of research based library and information practice.
Wilson's model of information seeking behaviour was born out of a need to focus the field of information and library science on human use of information, rather than the use of sources.
While sensemaking has been studied by other disciplines under other names for centuries, in information science and computer science the term "sensemaking" has primarily marked two distinct but related topics. Sensemaking was introduced as a methodology by Brenda Dervin in the 1980s and to human–computer interaction by PARC researchers Daniel M. Russell, Mark Stefik, Peter Pirolli, and Stuart Card in 1993.