January 2012 Fiji floods

Last updated
January 2012 Fiji floods
Fiji map.png
Location of Fiji
DateJanuary 21 – February 12, 2012
Location Viti Levu (especially in the west), Vanua Levu
DeathsAt least 8 dead, over 4,500 displaced, over 178,000 affected
Property damageOver FJ$50 million (2012 FJ$)

The January 2012 Fiji floods was serious flooding which occurred from January 21 to February 12, 2012, with heavy rains causing flooding to hit Vanua and western Viti Levu. Nadi, Lautoka, Ba, Tavua and Rakiraki were the worst affected areas. The damage caused by this flood to all institutions including the government was FJ$50,047,344.00. Many infrastructure utilities and agricultural sectors were damaged. [1]

Contents

Meteorological causes of 2012 Fiji flood

2012 Fiji flood was mainly due to a trough of low pressure associated with Tropical Disturbance affecting the western part of Fiji, which combined with a slow moving convergence zone and transient ridges of high pressure resulted in the country experiencing heavy rainfall and flooding. [2] Between 22 and 24 January, Fiji received more than 200mm of rain, with Vatukoula recording the highest rainfall of 863.4mm. [2] This exceeded the usual rainfall of 373 mm on the western part of Viti Levu in Fiji's wettest January. [3] The northwesterly winds on January 24, pushed a layer of monsoon air over Fiji, resulting in torrential downpours in the western and northern parts of the island again. [4] It extended from Vanuatu, Vanuatu to Fiji and then south-east to Tonga, Tonga, causing severe flooding of major rivers, streams and low-lying areas as well as the towns of Lakilaki, Ba and Nadi. [2]

Timeline and significant events

January 21
January 24
  • With over 145mm of rainfall at Nadi Airport in the last 24 hours, widespread flooding in western and northern Fiji seems inevitable. [4]
January 25
  • Continued rain. As the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) is expected to stay over Fiji, the rain will ease off for a day or two from Thursday but will not disappear completely. [4]
  • A massive landslide in the village of Tukuraki in Bayakitu killed four people in one house. [1]
February 7
  • The prime minister briefed the meeting on the results of the damage assessment. The number of people affected by the floods is as high as 178,153. [1]
February 12
  • End of the floods
Area involved in January 2012 Fiji floods. Flood area involved in January 2012 Fiji floods.jpg
Area involved in January 2012 Fiji floods.

Flood trend

The effects of the tropical depression continued. A month after the flood ended, another tropical depression caused heavy rainfall in the north and west of Viti Levu, leading to more flood. Heavy rains in the western part of the island lasted for a long time, causing flood of major rivers, creeks and low-lying areas. [6]

Background

Definition of flood

Flood refers to the possibility of a rise in water level outside of the normal range in a stream or other water body that results in the overflow of water, including events such as river flood, flash flood, urban flood, and stormwater flood. [3]

Common causes of flooding in Fiji

Topography

Fiji is located in the south pacific and has a tropical oceanic climate. Its two largest islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, are over 1000 metres above sea level. [7] Viti Levu's mountain range creates distinct wet and dry climatic zones on its windward and leeward sides. This geographical topography results in Fiji's rainy season lasting from November to April, with significant variations in rainfall between regions and most of the rainfall occurring in the form of heavy but brief localised showers. [3]

Weather pattern

Tropical cyclones and tropical depressions are the most common cause of severe flooding in Fiji. [6] Also, rainfall in Fiji is highly variable and the seasonality of rainfall is strongly influenced by the movement of the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) can also lead to extreme weather events. [8]

Monsoon trough

Even in the absence of cyclone activity, parts of Fiji are vulnerable to flood. In January 2009, for example, a sustained monsoon trough triggered a record 5-day rainfall event and the highest flood recorded since 1931. [9]

Geographical impact

The catastrophic flooding and subsequent landslides caused unprecedented damage to the western region of the main island of Vitu Levu and Vanua Levu. A state of emergency was declared as a consequence. Second and third cities, Nadi and Lautoka, Ba, Sigatoka and Rakiraki were declared to be in a state of disaster, by the Disaster Management Office. [10] [11]

Soil erosion

There are several significant geographical ways in which the floodwater has impacted the affected areas of Fiji. Primarily, excessive rainfall resulted in soil erosion which can alter the landscape and topographical representation, ultimately increasing the potential for further events of this nature. [12] The degradation of soil and nutrient depletion due to the loss of topsoil by erosion can affect the environment and quality of food production. Over time it is possible for crop yields to be become much lower. [13]

Sedimentation

Large volumes of alluvial sediment were displaced and washed downstream and deposited into coastal areas and floodplains. [14] [15] The net effect of sedimentation dumping in this manner can reroute the course of rivers, affecting water distribution and the suffocation of aquatic organisms, leaving a negative imprint on the ecosystems that have been previously degraded in the same way. [16]

There are environmental issues that are also impacting the geographical landscape of Fiji in the aftermath of flooding events. Changes in the way the land is used, namely deforestation and degradation, and poor waste disposal practices. [17] [18]

Deforestation

Deforestation also causes soil erosion in forested areas close to water sources. [19] [20] Deforestation in Fiji continues to increase due to the need for wood for the rebuilding of homes and businesses. Further demands on land usage for cultivating commercial crops on marginal land, sugarcane and tobacco are good examples, put high demands on the lands resources. The increase of urban developments among the communities also drives deforestation. [21] [22] Cropping on fragile soil without observation of conservation practices and the burning of grasslands further illustrate the effects of deforestation in perpetuating soil erosion and the potential for increased risk of flooding. [23]

Large areas of the Fijian coastlands are made more susceptible to erosion by inappropriate disposal of animal waste, pesticides and fertilizers being dumped into international waters by farm run-offs during excessive rainfall. [24]

Physical impact

Tourism

The demand for luxury coastal accommodation on the western region of the Island, has seen exponential development of hotel resorts and urbanisation of the land to provide retail and entertainment and recreational facilities. Tourism in Fiji brought economic opportunity for business and employment with the addition of tourist expenditure. However the rapid evolution of the natural coastal landscape has established social and environmental changes for the local inhabitants. [25] Hotel workers are commonly found to be the main bread-winners for many families, however, travel into the resorts from rural areas can reduce overall earnings and therefore the implications for poverty in rural areas is high. [26] Over-development threatens the lives, livelihoods and homes of local people due to largescale erosion and sediment displacement, increasing floods in the lowlands and coastal areas. [25]

Health impacts

Displacement and mortality

Official figures from the Fiji National Disaster Management Office state that 4,561 people were displaced due to the flood event in January 2012, with 74 evacuation centres set up to support them. [27] [28] [29] Estimates of mortality attributed to immediate consequences of the flooding ranges between eight and eleven people. [28] [3] Indirect delayed mortality rates were much higher, for example at least 44 people were killed by diseases attributable to the flood waters. [30]

Extreme ground saturation and flooding in January 2012 caused by tropical depression 06F, is said to have exacerbated the impact of further flooding in March 2012 which displaced a further 15,000 people and killed 4. [3] [31]

Disease outbreaks

In Fiji, where much of the population live in low-lying areas, heavy cyclonic rainfall is a high risk factor for transmission of water-borne diseases and diseases which spread through fecal-oral transmission. [32] The flood conditions in January 2012 led to a rise in cases of water-borne diseases, including a serious Leptospirosis outbreak. [30] During the January 2012 flood event and subsequent related flooding in March 2012, 576 Leptospirosis cases were recorded, with a case fatality rate of 7%. [33] Issues with water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) in the aftermath of the flooding also caused a spike in reported cases of typhoid and diarrhoea. [28]

Mental health and well-being

Those impacted by the floods reported lasting trauma due to the destruction caused by the flooding. This included loss of homes and possessions, displacement of people, and fragmentation of communities. Mental health and wellbeing support in the aftermath of the flood was limited. [27] Limited warnings in advance of flooding was stated as a cause of concern and anxiety. [31]

Gendered impacts on health and well-being

It is well documented that women experience poorer outcomes from natural disaster compared to men. [34] In the aftermath of the January 2012 and the related flooding in March 2012, pre-existing issues with gender-based and domestic violence toward women and girls worsened. [27] Three instances of serious sexual assault in flood evacuation shelters were documented, and subsequent training in recognising and preventing gender based violence was rolled out to emergency workers. [35] Financial strain caused by the loss of livelihoods gave rise to sexual exploitation of women and children. [27] Women reported experiencing unequal access to the humanitarian relief mobilised for those affected, also citing tensions between different communities and ethnic groups. [27]

The different sanitation needs of women and girls can go overlooked during natural disasters. The Fiji Red Cross Society provided 'dignity kits' to support the menstrual hygiene of women and girls during the flooding event and aftermath. [35]

Socio-economic factors impacting health and well-being

Many people on Viti Levu live in informal settlements on land susceptible to flooding, and in housing deemed inadequate to withstand heavy cyclonic activity or flood waters. [7] Around 34% of people living in the areas affected at the time of the flooding were living below the poverty line. [36] Poorer households in Fiji have less resilience to flood events and their aftermath. Those in low income brackets are less likely to be able to prepare for and recover from flood events. [7] Furthermore, flood events can push households over the poverty line or further into poverty, exacerbating the effects of future events. [7] [36]

Disaster Response

Coordination

Fiji has a well established disaster management structure. [37] In January 2012, the National Disaster Management office (NDM) activated the National Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) who thereafter led the disaster response. The NEOC were guided by an "operations order" (endorsed by the National Disaster Council (NCD)). [1] which focused on critical elements including speed of response, effective communication and flexibility. On the NCD's advice on 25 January, the Fijian Cabinet declared a “State of Natural Disaster" for part of the Western Division for 15 days - later extended for another 10 days on 8 February.

District Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs) played a key role in providing on the ground support in areas of most need. The response faced challenges in common with other events in the region e.g. lack of flood warning, lack of communication channels and difficulty accessing data [38] which can make it hard to assess damage and focus resources. Research shows that there remains an opportunity to increase resilience to floods and other natural disasters in the region. [39]

Evacuation Centres (ECs)

To support those who were displaced, ECs were set up in priority locations. Community facilities were utilized, e.g. schools and churches. Over the period of the floods a total of 74 ECs were opened supporting over 4500 evacuees. [29] These centres became critical hubs for the provision of essential supplies, shelter, and also for the dissemination of educational information to manage risks. [40] Challenges included potential disruption to education when schools were used as ECs, a common challenge in disaster response [41] as well as lack of sanitation and water supplies at the centres. [38]

The Prime Minister’s Flood Relief Appeal – launched January 26, 2012

On 26 January, then Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama launched his "Flood Relief Appeal". [29] Administered by the BSP Financial Group Limited, the Fund facilitated donations from both domestic and international branches. [42] The Prime Minister made a public appeal encouraging multi sectoral support and later the Cabinet approved a submission made by the PM to allow a 200% tax deduction for cash donations exceeding FJ$1000 (running 27 January to 31 March 2012). [43] By early March 2012, it was estimated that the Fund stood at nearly FJ$2million.

During and after the floods, Fiji was supported by a range of stakeholders, e.g. national governments, private business, religious groups and volunteer organizations. Notable support came from the Australian government who supported the region during and for some time after the event to the value of almost FJ$1.8 m [44] Organizations provided both financial support and essentials supplies, with many donors filtering their contributions via the Fijian Red Cross.

The role of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cross Societies (IFRC)

The IFRC and local Red Cross were critical in disaster response receiving dynamic updates from the NDMO . [40] Their activity covered risk and damage assessment, provision of essentials supplies as well as medical support for minor injuries. The Red Cross had prepositioned emergency supplies and worked to get these to priority locations. [1]

January 2012 relief efforts - Fiji Red Cross Fiji Red Cross, Fiji (10695132256).jpg
January 2012 relief efforts - Fiji Red Cross

Lessons Learned

Brown [3] pointed out that due to climate change, natural disasters may become more frequent, resulting in more losses, especially for developing countries like Fiji, which can be fatal.

Monitoring capability

Many quantitative flood monitoring techniques and indicators have been used recently, such as the Standardized Precipitation Index [45] and the Flood Index. [46] The Flood Index (IF) is a more innovative and accurate technical indicator that can determine past flood events' duration, severity, and intensity and provide correct guidance for future flood decision-making. [47] However, it is not widely used by monitoring departments at this stage and needs further promotion. More effective and accurate flood quantification and monitoring technologies urgently need to be developed, and disaster prediction requires more robust academic support for flood-prone areas such as Fiji.

At the same time, observers responsible for river basins and floods need to strengthen their understanding and prevention of floods through stakeholder feedback. [48]

Infrastructure system strengthening

During the 23/01-27/01 floods in Fiji, mountain landslides and widespread flooding affected nearly 25000 people, disrupted water and electricity supply, and extensively damaged infrastructure. [49] Strengthening infrastructure systems, flood protection measures, and rapid recovery capabilities are areas that Fiji needs to improve in the future. It is essential to have a second system or disaster response plan, especially in areas prone to disasters.

At the same time, the medical system needs to buffer the direct harm caused by floods and prevent diseases after the flood period. In January and March 2012, consecutive tropical depressions caused two extreme flooding events in western Fiji, leading to the largest outbreak of leptospirosis in the Pacific region, with 44 deaths and hundreds of confirmed cases. [30] Post-disaster disease prevention needs more attention, and the medical system needs strengthening.

Vulnerability protection

In the 24 January 2012 flood, two farmers drowned while rescuing livestock. [50] The flood caused irreparable damage to many crops and caused direct property damage to farmers. [49] In flood events, watershed communities are the most vulnerable group, relying on a range of resources and income from the watershed, which are at risk of environmental changes such as floods. [48] To reduce the loss of life, these vulnerable groups need to have some particular protection policies, and Fiji's domestic and international attention needs to be raised.

Climate response

The intensification of equatorial warming in the Pacific may lead to more frequent extreme events in Pacific island countries affected by events in the South Pacific Convergence Zone. [51] Data from floods in 2012 estimated that under current climate change conditions, future floods in Fiji will be more frequent and severe, and the resulting losses will increase with the degree of climate change. [3] Fiji must pay attention to climate conditions and be more sensitive in preventing and controlling severe rainfall and floods while working with other countries to make practical measures for global warming.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Fiji</span>

Fiji is a group of volcanic islands in the South Pacific, lying about 4,450 kilometres (2,765 mi) southwest of Honolulu and 1,770 km (1,100 mi) north of New Zealand. Of the 332 islands and 522 smaller islets making up the archipelago, about 106 are permanently inhabited. The total land size is 18,272 km2 (7,055 sq mi). It has the 26th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 1,282,978 km2 (495,361 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viti Levu</span> Largest island in Fiji

Viti Levu is the largest island in the Republic of Fiji. It is the site of the nation's capital, Suva, and home to a large majority of Fiji's population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1999 Vietnamese floods</span>

The 1999 Vietnamese floods occurred in late October 1999 when Vietnam experienced the worst flooding in forty years. Tropical Storm No. 9 first appeared in heavy rain from 18 to 20 October, hitting the central provinces of Guangping, Guangzhi, Chengtian Hue, Danang, Guangnan, Guangyi and Heping in Vietnam. The rain was the first in a series of rainstorm events that lasted for two to three weeks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Daman</span> Category 4 South Pacific cyclone in 2007

Severe Tropical Cyclone Daman was the strongest cyclone of the 2007–08 South Pacific cyclone season. Cyclone Daman was the fourth tropical depression and the first severe tropical cyclone to form east of longitude 180° during the 2007–08 South Pacific cyclone season. Due to the severity of the storm, the name Daman was retired and replaced with Denia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">May 2004 Caribbean floods</span> Flood event that took place in the Caribbean Islands

The May 2004 Caribbean floods was a flood event that affected the Caribbean Islands and Hispaniola from May 18, 2004, to May 25, 2004. Moving quickly from Central America, a low-pressure storm system brought heavy rainfall and thunderstorms to Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic resulting in rainfall amounts exceeding 500 mm within a 7-day period. Cities in flood-plain areas like Mapou, Haiti, and Jimani, of the Dominican Republic, experienced over 250 mm of rain between May 24 and 25, causing the Solie River to overflow, resulting in devastating environmental and infrastructure damage. With hundreds dead and thousands more displaced in Mapou and Jimani, the death toll was at its highest in decades, partly because of deforestation. Steep valley ridges and barren hillsides channeled rainwater towards valleys, creating landslides that overwhelmed and flooded cities particularly in high-poverty areas where buildings were wooden or makeshift temporary homes. In addition, inhabitants residing on these flood plains were subject to increased risk from water-borne diseases due to inadequate waste removal management and contaminated water supply due to excessive debris caused by flooding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Gene</span> Category 3 South Pacific cyclone in 2008

Severe Tropical Cyclone Gene was the deadliest storm as well as the most damaging tropical cyclone of the 2007–08 South Pacific cyclone season east of 160ºE. RSMC Nadi monitored Gene as the 12th tropical disturbance, as well as the fourth tropical cyclone and the third severe tropical cyclone to form west of 160ºE during the 2007–08 South Pacific cyclone season. Gene was also recognised by RSMC Nadi as the fifth tropical cyclone and fourth severe tropical cyclone to form within the South Pacific Ocean during the 2007-08 season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Cliff</span> Category 2 South Pacific cyclone in 2007

Tropical Cyclone Cliff was first noted as a weak tropical disturbance on April 1, 2007, within a trough of low pressure about 210 km (130 mi) to the southwest of Rotuma. Over the next couple of days the system drifted towards the southeast and Fiji, in an area of strong wind shear. During April 3, the system slightly accelerated, as it moved towards the south-southeast before the westerly wind shear around the system relaxed sufficiently to allow the depression to consolidate while it was located near Vanua Levu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flood control</span> Methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters

Flood control methods are used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flood relief methods are used to reduce the effects of flood waters or high water levels. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff. A distinction is made between structural and non-structural flood control measures. Structural methods physically restrain the flood waters, whereas non-structural methods do not. Building hard infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing flooding. However, increased best practice within landscape engineering is to rely more on soft infrastructure and natural systems, such as marshes and flood plains, for handling the increase in water. To prevent or manage coastal flooding, coastal management practices have to handle natural processes like tides but also the human cased sea level rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2009–10 South Pacific cyclone season</span> Tropical cyclone season

The 2009–10 South Pacific cyclone season began on December 3, 2009 with the formation of Tropical Disturbance 01F, 32 days after the cyclone season had officially begun on November 1, 2009. The season ended on April 30, 2010. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the southern Pacific Ocean east of 160°E. Additionally, the regional tropical cyclone operational plan defines a tropical cyclone year separately from a tropical cyclone season; the "tropical cyclone year" began on July 1, 2009 and ended on June 30, 2010. Tropical cyclones between 160°E and 120°W and north of 25°S are monitored by the Fiji Meteorological Service. Those that move south of 25°S are monitored by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Wellington, New Zealand. The first tropical disturbance of the season formed on December 3, about 1015 km (700 mi) to the north of Suva, Fiji and later intensified into Tropical Cyclone Mick. The last system, 15F, dissipated on April 5 of the following year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1988–89 South Pacific cyclone season</span>

The 1988–89 South Pacific cyclone season was an active tropical cyclone season with an above average number of tropical cyclones observed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2011–12 South Pacific cyclone season</span> Tropical cyclone season

The 2011–12 South Pacific cyclone season was one of the least active South Pacific tropical cyclone seasons on record, with only three tropical cyclones occurring during the season. The season ran from November 1, 2011, to April 30, 2012, however, any tropical cyclones that form before June 30, 2012, would have fallen within the 2011–12 tropical cyclone year and would have counted towards the season total. The strongest and only severe tropical cyclone that occurred during the season was Severe Tropical Cyclone Jasmine, which tracked in from out of the South Pacific basin. Within the basin, tropical cyclones are monitored by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) in Nadi, Fiji, and the Tropical Cyclone Warning Center (TCWC) in Wellington, New Zealand. RSMC Nadi attaches an F designation to tropical disturbances that form in or move into the South Pacific. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issues unofficial warnings within the South Pacific, designating tropical storm-equivalent or greater tropical cyclones with a number and a P suffix. RSMC Nadi and TCWC Wellington both use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale, and measure windspeeds over a period of ten minutes, while the JTWC measures sustained winds over a period of one minute and uses the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Susan</span> Category 5 South Pacific cyclone in 1997 and 1998

Severe Tropical Cyclone Susan was one of the most intense tropical cyclones on record within the South Pacific basin. It was first noted on December 20, 1997, as a weak tropical disturbance located to the north of American Samoa. Over the next 12 days, the disturbance remained weak while it gradually moved towards the southwest before it started to rapidly develop on January 2, 1998 while it was located near the Fijian dependency of Rotuma. The disturbance was declared a tropical cyclone later that day, but was not named Susan until the next day, after it had intensified into a category 2 tropical cyclone on the Australian Scale. Over the next few days, Susan moved towards the southwest and continued to intensify before it reached its peak intensity as a category five tropical cyclone during January 5 while it was located about 400 km (250 mi) to the northwest of Vanuatu's capital city Port Vila.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Joni</span> Category 3 South Pacific cyclone in 1992

Severe Tropical Cyclone Joni was a damaging tropical cyclone that impacted the island nations of Tuvalu and Fiji. It was first noted within the South Pacific Convergence Zone at the start of December 1992, as a shallow tropical depression in the vicinity of the island nation Tuvalu. Over the next few days the system gradually developed further as it affected Tuvalu, before it was declared to be a tropical cyclone and named Joni by the Fiji Meteorological Service (FMS) during December 7. Over the next couple of days the system intensified further as it was steered south-westwards and posed a threat towards the Fijian dependency of Rotuma and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna. The system subsequently peaked as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale as it approached the Fijian Islands during December 10. Over the next couple of days the system moved through the Fijian Islands, before it became an extratropical cyclone during December 13. The system was last noted during the next day as it was absorbed by a mid-latitude trough of low pressure to the east of New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Gavin</span> 1997 tropical cyclone impacting Fiji and the South Pacific region

Severe Tropical Cyclone Gavin was the most intense tropical cyclone to affect Fiji, since Cyclone Oscar of the 1982–83 cyclone season and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect the island nations of Tuvalu and Wallis and Futuna during the 1996–97 season. The system that was to become Gavin was first identified during March 2, as a weak tropical depression that had developed within the monsoon trough of low pressure. Over the next two days the depression gradually developed further, before it was named Gavin by RSMC Nadi early on March 4 as it had developed into a tropical cyclone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Eric</span> Category 3 tropical cyclone in 1985

Severe Tropical Cyclone Eric was one of two tropical cyclones to affect the island nations of Vanuatu and Fiji within a week during January 1985. The precursor shallow depression developed within the monsoon trough during 13 January, to the west of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu. On 16 January, the storm developed-hurricane-force winds and Eric began to undergo rapid deepening. While two different agencies differ on when and how strong Eric was at its peak, it was believed to have peak on 17 January while passing through the Fiji island group. Shortly after its peak, Eric began to weaken steadily, and by 20 January, Severe Tropical Cyclone Eric had ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone. Combined with another storm – Cyclone Nigel – Eric caused 25 fatalities and $40 million worth of damage. A total of 299 farms were affected as well as the airport in Nadi. About 30,000 people were left homeless. Severe crop damage was also reported. Viti Levu sustained the worst effects from Cyclone Eric. During the aftermath of the storm, a number of first world countries distributed aid for victims of Eric.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Oscar</span>

Severe Tropical Cyclone Oscar was one of the worst tropical cyclones to affect Fiji. The system was first noted as a shallow depression on 23 February, while it was located to the north of Fiji's capital Suva. The system subsequently developed further as it moved westwards and was named as Tropical Cyclone Oscar during the next day. Over the next few days Oscar subsequently intensified as it moved westwards and gradually developed further and equivalent to a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone, on the modern day Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale during 27 February. The system subsequently turned and started to move south-eastwards towards Fiji.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Nigel</span> Category 3 tropical cyclone in 1985

Severe Tropical Cyclone Nigel was the second of two tropical cyclones to affect Northern Vanuatu and the Fijian islands during January 1985. The system was first noted as an ill-defined low-pressure area ("low") located within the Intertropical Convergence Zone near the Cape York Peninsula. Over the next few days the low moved eastwards and increased in strength; it was named Nigel on January 16 as it developed into a tropical cyclone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">January 2009 Fiji floods</span>

During January 2009, Fiji was impacted by a series of consecutive weather events, that caused severe flooding in various parts of the island nation. The floods were caused by a number of intense synoptic-scale weather features, which included an active monsoonal trough, the South Pacific Convergence Zone, Tropical Depression's 04F and 05F as well as Tropical Cyclone Hettie. These weather features combined to cause strong winds, considerable rainfall, as well as severe flooding across the island nation throughout the month.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyclone Ana</span> Category 3 South Pacific cyclone of 2021

Severe Tropical Cyclone Ana was one of three tropical cyclones to impact the island nation of Fiji towards the end of January 2021. The fifth tropical disturbance, third tropical cyclone and second severe tropical cyclone of the 2020–21 South Pacific cyclone season, Ana was first noted as Tropical Disturbance 05F during January 26, while it was located about 220 km (135 mi) to the northeast of Port Vila in Vanuatu. Over the next few days, the system moved eastwards and gradually developed further, before it was declared to be a tropical cyclone and named Ana during January 29. Over the next day, the system moved south-eastwards towards Fiji before it made landfall on the island of Viti Levu. After emerging into the Pacific Ocean, the system intensified into a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone, before it rapidly degenerated into a subtropical low during February 1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Fiji</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Fiji related to climate change

Climate change in Fiji is an exceptionally pressing issue for the country - as an island nation, Fiji is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, coastal erosion and extreme weather. These changes, along with temperature rise, will displace Fijian communities and will prove disruptive to the national economy - tourism, agriculture and fisheries, the largest contributors to the nation's GDP, will be severely impacted by climate change causing increases in poverty and food insecurity. As a party to both the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement, Fiji hopes to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 National Disaster Management Office (2012). "Disaster Report".
  2. 1 2 3 "Climate Data and Products". www.met.gov.fj. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Brown, P.; Daigneault, A.; Gawith, D. (2017-09-19). "Climate change and the economic impacts of flooding on Fiji". Climate and Development. 9 (6): 493–504. doi:10.1080/17565529.2016.1174656. ISSN   1756-5529. S2CID   156379326.
  4. 1 2 3 "Fiji - January Floods Situation overview No. 1 | OCHA". www.unocha.org. 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
  5. ↑ "GLIDE Record". glidenumber.net. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
  6. 1 2 Kundra, Sakul; Kundra, Nakul; Alam, Mohammad Afsar; Prasad, Ravinesh Rohit (2022-09-22). "Determining 2012 Flood Havoc On Tourism: A Case Study Of The Floods In The Nadi River In Fiji". Journal of Positive School Psychology. 6 (7): 4221–4231. ISSN   2717-7564.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Yeo, Stephen (2013). ""A review of flood resilience in Fiji. In International conference on flood resilience"". Experiences in Asia and Europe, University of Exeter, UK, September: 5–7.
  8. ↑ McAneney, John; van den Honert, Robin; Yeo, Stephen (August 2017). "Stationarity of major flood frequencies and heights on the Ba River, Fiji, over a 122‐year record". International Journal of Climatology. 37 (S1): 171–178. doi: 10.1002/joc.4989 . ISSN   0899-8418. S2CID   132350593.
  9. ↑ Daigneault, Adam J.; Brown, Pike; Gawith, David, eds. (2014). COSTS AND BENEFITS OF ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION FOR FLOOD RISK REDUCTION IN FIJI. Paper.
  10. ↑ "Disaster Report – NDMO" . Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  11. ↑ "As floods continue in Fiji, UN stresses need to boost preventive measures | UN News". news.un.org. 2012-02-03. Retrieved 2023-12-02.
  12. ↑ "Sediment Transport and Deposition". Environmental Measurement Systems. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  13. ↑ "Improving plant nutrient management for better farmer livelihoods, food security and environmental sustainability". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  14. ↑ Jorquera, Eliana; Rodriguez, Jose F.; Saco, Patricia M.; Verdon-Kidd, Danielle (2022-03-25). Impacts of climate change in Pacific Islands catchments: sediment contribution due to tropical cyclones and depressions (Report). Copernicus Meetings.
  15. ↑ "Alluvial deposit | Sediment, Soil & Gravel | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  16. ↑ Saunders, Megan Irene; Atkinson, Scott; Klein, Carissa Joy; Weber, Tony; Possingham, Hugh P. (2017-11-10). "Increased sediment loads cause non-linear decreases in seagrass suitable habitat extent". PLOS ONE. 12 (11): e0187284. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187284 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   5681285 . PMID   29125843.
  17. ↑ "Learn the effects of deforestation | WWF". www.wwf.org.uk. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  18. ↑ Singh, Shalini; Bhat, Jahangeer A.; Shah, Shipra; Pala, Nazir A. (March 2021). "Coastal resource management and tourism development in Fiji Islands: a conservation challenge". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 23 (3): 3009–3027. doi:10.1007/s10668-020-00764-4. ISSN   1387-585X.
  19. ↑ "Indigenous communities protect rainforest in Fiji". www.myclimate.org. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  20. ↑ Fahad (2022-03-02). "How Does Deforestation Lead to Floods and Droughts?". Earth Reminder. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  21. ↑ Vizzuality. "Fiji Deforestation Rates & Statistics | GFW". www.globalforestwatch.org. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  22. ↑ "Saving Fiji's 'last remaining intact forests'". Monash Business School. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  23. ↑ Neary, Daniel George; Leonard, Jackson McMichael (2020-01-04), "Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review", Grasses and Grassland Aspects, IntechOpen, ISBN   978-1-78984-950-9 , retrieved 2023-12-01
  24. ↑ "Climate Change: The Fiji Islands Response. Fijiʼs First National Communication Under the Framework Convention on Climate Change 2005" (PDF). unfccc.int. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  25. 1 2 Xie, Philip Feifan; Chandra, Vishal; Gu, Kai (2013-01-01). "Morphological changes of coastal tourism: A case study of Denarau Island, Fiji". Tourism Management Perspectives. 5: 75–83. doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2012.09.002. ISSN   2211-9736.
  26. ↑ Bernard, Karen; Cook, Samantha (2015-12-01). "Luxury tourism investment and flood risk: Case study on unsustainable development in Denarau island resort in Fiji". International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. Risking Disaster – the role of private investment and public regulation in disaster risk management. 14: 302–311. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.09.002. ISSN   2212-4209.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 "The 2012 FIJI floods: gender sensitivity in disaster management". wrd.unwomen.org. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  28. 1 2 3 "Fiji declares 15 day state of disaster | UNDRR". www.undrr.org. 2012-02-03. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  29. 1 2 3 "Prime Minister launches flood appeal - Fiji | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2012-01-26. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  30. 1 2 3 Ritter, Jana M.; Lau, Colleen; Craig, Scott B.; Goarant, Cyrille; Nilles, Eric J.; Ko, Albert I.; Kama, Mike; Imrie, Allison; Togami, Eri (2018-10-03). "A Large Leptospirosis Outbreak following Successive Severe Floods in Fiji, 2012". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 99 (4): 849–851. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.18-0335. ISSN   0002-9637. PMC   6159581 . PMID   30141390.
  31. 1 2 McNamara, Karen E (2013). "A state of emergency: How local businesses experienced the 2012 flood in Fiji". The Australian Journal of Emergency Management. 28 (3): 17–23.
  32. ↑ de Alwis, Ruklanthi; Watson, Conall; Nikolay, Birgit; Lowry, John H.; Thieu, Nga Tran Vu; Van, Tan Trinh; Ngoc, Dung Tran Thi; Rawalai, Kitione; Taufa, Mere; Coriakula, Jerimaia; Lau, Colleen L.; Nilles, Eric J.; Edmunds, W. John; Kama, Mike; Baker, Stephen (2018). "Role of Environmental Factors in Shaping Spatial Distribution of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi, Fiji". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 24 (2): 284–293. doi:10.3201/eid2402.170704. ISSN   1080-6040. PMC   5782885 . PMID   29350150.
  33. ↑ Lau, Colleen L.; Watson, Conall H.; Lowry, John H.; David, Michael C.; Craig, Scott B.; Wynwood, Sarah J.; Kama, Mike; Nilles, Eric J. (2016-01-28). "Human Leptospirosis Infection in Fiji: An Eco-epidemiological Approach to Identifying Risk Factors and Environmental Drivers for Transmission". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 10 (1): e0004405. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004405 . ISSN   1935-2735. PMC   4731082 . PMID   26820752.
  34. ↑ Neumayer, Eric; Plümper, Thomas (September 2007). "The Gendered Nature of Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy, 1981–2002". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 97 (3): 551–566. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00563.x . ISSN   0004-5608. S2CID   18391545.
  35. 1 2 "In Fiji first responders train to address sexual violence in disasters - Fiji | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2014-11-24. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  36. 1 2 Gawith, David; Daigneault, Adam; Brown, Pike (2016-12-01). "Does community resilience mitigate loss and damage from climaterelated disasters? Evidence based on survey data". Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 59 (12): 2102–2123. doi:10.1080/09640568.2015.1126241. ISSN   0964-0568.
  37. ↑ Fiji Disaster Management Reference Handbook - March 2023 - page 32
  38. 1 2 "Humanitarian Bulletin Pacific Issue 01 Quarter 2, 2012 - Fiji | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2012-07-26. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  39. ↑ "Community Responses to Floods in Fiji: Lessons Learned". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
  40. 1 2 Information Bulletin: Fiji Floods (IFRC) 17th February 2012
  41. ↑ Onigbinde, Lois (2018-05-18). "The Impacts of Natural Disasters on Educational Attainment: Cross-Country Evidence from Macro Data". Master's Theses.
  42. ↑ "PM's relief fund stands at $1.9million - Fiji | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2012-03-07. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  43. ↑ "Civil society gives to pm disaster relief - Fiji | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2012-02-01. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  44. ↑ "Australia helps Fiji rebuild after devastating floods".
  45. ↑ Seiler, R. A.; Hayes, M.; Bressan, L. (2002-08-02). "Using the standardized precipitation index for flood risk monitoring". International Journal of Climatology. 22 (11): 1365–1376. doi:10.1002/joc.799. ISSN   0899-8418.
  46. ↑ Deo, Ravinesh C; Byun, Hi-Ryong; Adamowski, Jan F; Kim, Do-Woo (2015-06-20). "A Real-time Flood Monitoring Index Based on Daily Effective Precipitation and its Application to Brisbane and Lockyer Valley Flood Events". Water Resources Management. 29 (11): 4075–4093. doi:10.1007/s11269-015-1046-3. hdl: 10.1007/s11269-015-1046-3 . ISSN   0920-4741.
  47. ↑ Moishin, Mohammed; Deo, Ravinesh C.; Prasad, Ramendra; Raj, Nawin; Abdulla, Shahab (2020-10-20). "Development of Flood Monitoring Index for daily flood risk evaluation: case studies in Fiji". Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. 35 (7): 1387–1402. doi:10.1007/s00477-020-01899-6. ISSN   1436-3240.
  48. 1 2 Chandra, Alvin; Gaganis, Petros (2015-03-13). "Deconstructing vulnerability and adaptation in a coastal river basin ecosystem: a participatory analysis of flood risk in Nadi, Fiji Islands". Climate and Development. 8 (3): 256–269. doi:10.1080/17565529.2015.1016884. ISSN   1756-5529.
  49. 1 2 "Social Media Widget for Emergency Response". Issues in Information Systems. 2013. doi: 10.48009/2_iis_2013_289-297 . ISSN   1529-7314.
  50. ↑ CH-TRU Wasate Content Codes (CH-TRUCON) (Rev. 44) (Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI). 2012-04-18. doi: 10.2172/1041213 .
  51. ↑ Cai, Wenju; Lengaigne, Matthieu; Borlace, Simon; Collins, Matthew; Cowan, Tim; McPhaden, Michael J.; Timmermann, Axel; Power, Scott; Brown, Josephine; Menkes, Christophe; Ngari, Arona; Vincent, Emmanuel M.; Widlansky, Matthew J. (August 2012). "More extreme swings of the South Pacific convergence zone due to greenhouse warming". Nature. 488 (7411): 365–369. doi:10.1038/nature11358. ISSN   0028-0836.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.