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Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender people or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social gender roles. Transphobia is a type of prejudice and discrimination, similar to racism, sexism, or ableism, and it is closely associated with homophobia. Transgender people of color can experience many different forms of discrimination simultaneously.
Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion, act to traffic a person, regardless of the relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed acts and occur without the consent of the victim. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.
Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that befell them. There is historical and current prejudice against the victims of domestic violence and sex crimes, such as the greater tendency to blame victims of rape than victims of robbery if victims and perpetrators knew each other prior to the commission of the crime.
Femicide or feminicide is a term for the hate crime of systematically killing women, girls, or females in general because of their gender and/or sex. In 1976, the feminist author Diana E. H. Russell first defined the term as "the killing of females by males because they are female." Femicides are more often perpetrated by men against women. This is most likely due to unequal power between men and women as well as harmful gender roles, stereotypes, or social norms. Though femicide is not purely male-perpetrated but can be female-perpetrated as well.
Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors for example, testosterone or sociobiological theories). The nature of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor.
Rape culture is a setting, studied by several sociological theories, in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut-shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence, or some combination of these. It has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire societies have been alleged to be rape cultures.
Date rape is a form of acquaintance rape and dating violence. The two phrases are often used interchangeably, but date rape specifically refers to a rape in which there has been some sort of romantic or potentially sexual relationship between the two parties. Acquaintance rape also includes rapes in which the victim and perpetrator have been in a non-romantic, non-sexual relationship, for example as co-workers or neighbors.
Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), are violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against women or girls specifically because they are female, and can take many forms.
The feminist school of criminology is a school of criminology developed in the late 1960s and into the 1970s as a reaction to the general disregard and discrimination of women in the traditional study of crime. It is the view of the feminist school of criminology that a majority of criminological theories were developed through studies on male subjects and focused on male criminality, and that criminologists often would "add women and stir" rather than develop separate theories on female criminality.
Statistics on rape and other sexual assaults are commonly available in industrialized countries, and have become better documented throughout the world. Inconsistent definitions of rape, different rates of reporting, recording, prosecution and conviction for rape can create controversial statistical disparities, and lead to accusations that many rape statistics are unreliable or misleading.
Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.
Meda Chesney-Lind is a US feminist, criminologist, and an advocate for girls and women who come in contact with the criminal justice system in Hawaii.
Beth E. Richie is a professor of African American Studies, Sociology, Gender and Women's Studies, and Criminology, Law, and Justice at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) where she currently serves as head of the Criminology, Law, and Justice Department. From 2010 to 2016, Richie served as the director of the UIC Institute of Research on Race and Public Policy. In 2014, she was named a senior adviser to the National Football League Players Association Commission on domestic violence and sexual assault. Of her most notable awards, Richie has been awarded the Audre Lorde Legacy Award from the Union Institute, the Advocacy Award from the US Department of Health and Human Services, and the Visionary Award from the Violence Intervention Project. Her work has been supported by multiple foundations including Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the National Institute for Justice, and the National Institute of Corrections.
Female gang members in US street gangs operate within either exclusively female gangs or mixed-gender gangs. Gangs that allow female recruits include all-women functioning units, coed gangs, and female auxiliaries to male gangs. Although female gang membership parallels male membership in many ways, female members and gangs exist and operate in unique ways. The body of research on female gang membership is much less comprehensive than that of male membership, but researchers like Chesney-Lind and Hagedorn are advocating that this topic be studied more extensively and in its own right.
Rape schedule is a concept in feminist theory used to describe the notion that women are conditioned to place restrictions on and/or make alterations to their daily lifestyles and behaviours as a result of constant fear of sexual assault. These altered behaviours may occur consciously or unconsciously.
Gender inequality in Sri Lanka is centered on the inequalities that arise between men and women in Sri Lanka. Specifically, these inequalities affect many aspects of women's lives, starting with sex-selective abortions and male preferences, then education and schooling in childhood, which influence job opportunities, property rights, access to health and political participation in adulthood. While Sri Lanka is ranked well on several gender equality indices in comparison to other countries in the region, there are also some sources that question the verity of these indices. However, globally, Sri Lanka ranks relatively lower on gender equality indices. Overall, this pattern of social history that disempowers females produces a cycle of undervaluing females, providing only secondary access to health care and schooling and thus fewer opportunities to take on high level jobs or training, which then exacerbates the issue of low political participation and lowered social rights, a cycle studied and noted on by Dr. Elaine Enarson, a disaster sociologist studying the connection between disaster and the role of women.
Although fear of crime is a concern for people of all genders, studies consistently find that women around the world tend to have much higher levels of fear of crime than men, despite the fact that in many places, and for most offenses, men's actual victimization rates are higher. Fear of crime is related to a perceived risk of victimization, but is not the same; fear of crime may be generalized instead of referring to specific offenses, and perceived risk may also be considered a demographic factor that contributes to fear of crime. Women tend to have higher levels for both perceived risk and fear of crime.
The feminist pathways perspective is a feminist perspective of criminology which suggests victimization throughout the life course is a key risk factor for women's entry into offending.
Joanne Elizabeth Belknap is an American criminologist and Professor of Ethnic Studies at the University of Colorado Boulder.
Homosexuality in Sri Lanka consists of males who have homosexual sex with other males on the island-state of Sri Lanka. It also references the history of homosexual sex on the island during its history as Ceylon and as part of various continental kingdoms during pre-colonial times.
References
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-06. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "2015 Election Results".
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Service". Archived from the original on 2013-04-09. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
- ↑ "Faculty Awards 2007-2008". Archived from the original on 2015-09-07. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-02. Retrieved 2017-06-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "ASC Fellows". Archived from the original on 2015-03-18. Retrieved 2017-06-08.
- ↑ "Professional Awards | ASC Division on Women & Crime". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
- ↑ "Section on Race, Gender and Class Award Recipients". 2011-10-03.
- ↑ "Division on People of Color and Crime". Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
- ↑ "The Society for the Study of Social Problems | 2008 C. Wright Mills Award Winner and Finalists".
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-05-29. Retrieved 2010-04-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ Shelden, Randall G (2001). "Rev. of One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs and Gender, by Jody Miller". Critical Criminology. 10 (3): 243–245. doi:10.1023/A:1015748405657. S2CID 140342579.
- ↑ pg. 199
- ↑ Miller, Jody. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs and Gender. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Miller, Jody (2008). "Violence against Urban African American Girls: Challenges for Feminist Advocacy". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 24 (2): 148–162. doi:10.1177/1043986208315477. S2CID 145390872.
- ↑ pg. 155-57
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-05-29. Retrieved 2010-04-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ Miller, Jody. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs and Gender. New York: Oxford University Press.
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