The Khalili Collection of Kimono is a private collection of more than 450 Japanese kimono assembled by the British scholar, collector and philanthropist Nasser D. Khalili.[1] It is one of eight collections assembled, published and exhibited by Khalili,[2] each of which is considered to be among the most important collections within their respective fields.[3]
The Khalili Collection of Kimono includes formal, semi-formal, and informal kimono made for men, women, and children, illustrating the evolution of the kimono through cut, construction, materials, and decorative techniques from the 17th through the 20th centuries, with kimono representing the Edo period, the Meiji period, the Taishō period, and the Shōwa period.[4] The kimono within the collection are not on permanent display, but are periodically lent or donated in part to cultural institutions; including the Kremlin Museums in Moscow[5] and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.[6][7] Khalili, who also owns a collection of Meiji-era Japanese art, describes kimono as "one of the wonders of the world." He started the kimono collection with the aim of collecting and cataloguing cultural works that were not already actively being collected.[8]
"Kimono" literally means "thing to wear on the shoulders",[9]:20 and originally referred to clothing in general rather than a specific garment.[10] Clothing similar to the kimono was first introduced to Japan in the 7th century[9]:20 through frequent interaction between Japan and mainland China. The exchange of envoys between the two countries led to the Japanese Imperial Court adopting Chinese culture, including, among others, clothing, which consisted of wrapped-front garments with long sleeves of both a closed-neck and open-neck nature.[9]:30 The halting of envoy missions in the Heian period led to the stronger independent development of Japanese culture, including the further development of clothing into the kimono-like garment known as the kosode. Over time, the kosode became the predominant garment within Japan, developing from the Azuchi-Momoyama period onwards into the garment known as the kimono today.
Kimono are made from long, thin bolts of cloth known as tanmono, are sewn with mostly straight seams, and are held together by small ties known as koshihimo and an obi belt.[10] While Western clothing styles emphasise the body of the wearer, kimono have a distinctive T-shape which conceals more of the wearer's body, but provides, on the back and along the hem, a large area for decoration with patterns or motifs.[11] Kimono are commonly decorated with motifs of either seasonal, cultural or religious significance, with some auspicious groupings of motifs — such as the Three Friends of Winter — being commonly seen on kimono worn to formal events such as weddings. Motifs may also refer to folklore, classical literature or popular culture, and sometimes include visual puns.[12]:22 Kimono differ slightly in construction for men, women and children, and the choice of fabric, colour and decorative techniques can signify the wearer's age, gender, formality of occasion and — less commonly — marital status.[11][13][14] Variations of fabric type, weight and lining exist for different seasons, with unlined and sometimes sheer kimono being worn in the summer.[14]
Contrary to popular belief, the variation and experimentation visible in the history of kimono shows that kimono were - and remain to this day - a fashion system and industry, with its own rapidly-changing popular styles and trends, whereas this used to be thought of as a Western phenomenon.[12]:25[15]
Over-kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake), Japan, 1840-1870
The different forms of kimono represented in the Khalili Collection include the furisode ("swinging sleeve"; a formal kimono for young women), the kosode ("short sleeve"; the term used for all forms of short-sleeved garments before the usage of the word "kimono")[13] and the uchikake (a formal outer kimono worn unbelted, typically by brides to weddings).[16]
Edo period (1603–1868)
The Collection includes kimono and related garments from the Edo period, which saw a rise in a wide variety of designs and decorative techniques, particularly on kimono designed for women.[12]:8-11 Though the main consumers of expensive and highly-decorated kimono at the beginning of the Edo period were the military class, who used lavish clothing and other luxurious to signify their place in the social hierarchy, the rise of the wealthy merchant classes throughout the rest of the Edo period fuelled lower-class demand for increasingly elaborate clothing. This included the development of sophisticated methods of weaving, dyeing, and embroidery,[12]:20 with women in particular adopting brighter and bolder designs in their clothing; in previous eras, both men's and women's kimono had been relatively similar in appearance. Though everyday kimono would have been woven and sewn by women at home, the most elaborate examples of kimono produced within this time period were designed and created by specialist craftsmen and artists who were typically men.[12]:24
Garments outside of the samurai classes within the collection feature rich decoration from the waist-down only, with family crests on the neck and shoulders, a style known as tsuma moyō. These were worn by women of the merchant class,[12]:46–51 who in later years dressed in kimono more subdued than those of the samurai, despite following the same colour trends and naturalistic designs;[12]:54 with the introduction of dress edicts designed to oppress the merchant and socially-lower classes throughout the Edo period, an aesthetic style known as iki developed, emphasising subdued displays of luxury and wealth over the obvious presentation of money shown through the clothing worn by the samurai classes.[17] Red became a popular colour for merchant-class women, partly because of its cultural association with youth and passion, and partly for its expensive dye, derived from the safflower;[14] a bright red garment would have been an ostentatious display of wealth,[12]:63 examples of which are found throughout the collection. Worn by less wealthy merchants, lower down the social scale, are kimono made of cotton or ramie and dyed with indigo dye, with less dense designs but still a variety of dyes, patterns and techniques.[12]:96–102
As well as merchant-class pieces, the Collection also includes examples of formal samurai women's kimono; despite the militant connection, these are patterned with flowers, geometric patterns, or motifs such as clouds or waves.[12]:29–30 However, some examples within the collection do display the military status of the samurai, seen by way of example on a bright red kimono illustrated with gunbaiwar fans.[12]:29–30 Samurai men typically dressed with a more understated style, exemplified by items in the collection featuring geometric designs concentrated around the waist.[12]:76–78
Another kind of kimono specific to the military elite was the goshodoki, or "palace court style", which would be worn in the residence of a military leader (a shōgun or daimyō). These kimono - also featured in the collection - featured landscape scenes, commonly accompanied by motifs referencing classical literature, and symbolism referencing stories made popular amongst the upper classes through Noh plays.[12]:35–44
The collection also features some examples of yogi, or sleeping kimono, known to have been owned by samurai families; a type of thickly-wadded, wearable bedding, samurai yogi featured elaborate designs in garments made of silk in contrast to the typically simple and almost-entirely cotton examples used by the lower classes.[12]:93–95
Examples of Japanese garments created during this time period using imported Indian fabrics are also found in the collection. Indian fabrics, brought to Japan by Dutch importers, were received with enthusiasm and found many uses; the collection includes a flamboyant under-kimono for a man made by combining these finely-patterned fabrics with plain-weave silk and cotton.[12]:80 Other items show that Japanese designers started printing designs influenced by the Indian patterns independently,[12]:80–84 and that fabrics imported from France or Britain were also used to make kimono; ownership of these textiles would have signified both wealth and cultural taste, though the example found in the collection of a kimono using these fabrics is an undergarment, where the fabric would not have been seen once worn.[12]:87
Examples of Edo period kimono with the Khalili Collection
Kimono for a woman (kosode) with a design inspired by the Eight Views ofŌmi, 1780–1820
Underkimono for a man (juban) using imported Indian fabrics, 1800–1850
Outer kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake); landscape scene with bridge, pavilions and thatched huts, 1840–1870
Summer kimono for a woman depicting a landscape with fishing nets, 1820–1850
Meiji period (1868–1912)
Kimono from the Meiji period are also represented in the Collection. The Meiji period was defined by its drive towards both Westernisation and industrialisation, kickstarted by Japan opening its borders to the world in the 1860s,[18] and this saw the rapid import of Western culture, clothing and technologies, including the introduction of synthetic dyestuffs to Japan; the first synthetic dye, mauveine, had been invented in the previous decade.
Japan's newly-opened border also saw the export of Japanese culture to the West, where the kimono became an object of fascination.[12]:9 The Japanese textile industry rapidly Westernised in the face of foreign weaving technologies, and silk from Tokyo's factories became the principle export of Japan.[12]:117
With the introduction of cheaper and faster manufacture, more people could now afford silk kimono, and designers were able to create new patterns using the new methods of production.[12]:118 However, Emperor Meiji issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress,[12]:112 leading to the introduction of Western-style clothing within the public sphere, with some men typically adopting Western dress in the workplace (despite both women and men continuing to wear the kimono within the home) and most women continuing to wear the kimono in everyday life. Despite the introduction of Western dress, the kimono did not quickly fossilise as an object of tradition worn out of obligation by women and those unable to afford Western clothing; advertisements within Japan up until the 1940s display both the kimono and Western dress as items of fashionable wear, suggesting a more parallel evolution of the two within the Japanese wardrobe as equal, if differing, items of clothing.[15]
Cheaper synthetic dyes in the following decades meant that both purples and red - previously restricted to the wealthy elite - could now be owned by anyone,[12]:118 though they retained their symbolic importance of representing wealth and power.[19] These kimono are represented in the Collection, illustrating the evolution of Meiji period trends from subtle, grey-toned colours to a shift towards brighter and more vibrant designs at the end of the period.
Kimono also began to incorporate a number of Western motifs;[12]:11 a number featured in the Collection have a plain, bold colour, and feature an elaborate design around the hem, a common feature on Meiji period clothing;[12]:126–134 several have subtle colour gradients from the top to the bottom of the garment, a technique achieved through the dyeing technologies of the time. Another trend represented in the collection is both outer and inner garments of the same design,[12]:126-134 though this technique was usually reserved for those who could afford both brand-new kimono and undergarments of the same design to be commissioned at once.
However, the process of modernisation was still slow, and a more typical representation of Meiji period underclothes found in the Collection is women's under-kimono, made of different pieces of fabric, often with radically different colours and designs; these under-kimono, known as dōnuki, were often made from old kimono that had become unwearable, resulting in a sometimes complex, often symmetrical patchwork of motifs and fabrics, and were a common use for old kimono until the Taisho period, when it was no longer economically viable to make one's own clothing in the face of cheaper ready-to-wear garments.[12]:137 For men, under-kimono often featured highly-decorative and often heavily pictorial scenes that would then be covered entirely by the outer kimono, which was typically very plain or designed with a simple and subtle pattern. Example of men's under-kimono within the collection display depictions of performers, dancers and haiku poems; one piece combines postcard-like scenes of Japan's progress with a textual diary of the Meiji era.[12]:138–141
The use of bold colours and intricate designs spurred on by technological advancements can also be seen in the clothing of infants and young children represented in the Collection, including a boy's kimono and under-kimono set decorated with cranes and pine trees, and a girl's set that combines a deep blue outer-kimono with a bright red under-kimono. These colours and designs often utilised materials common to adult fashions.[12]:142–144
Examples of Meiji period kimono within the Khalili Collection
Outer kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake) depicting hawks in pine trees, 1870-1900
Kimono for a woman (kosode) showing flowers on rafts, 1870-1900
Outer kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake) depicting hawks, 1880-1900
Outer kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake) with hanging scroll motifs, 1880–1890
Taishō and early Shōwa periods (1912–1950)
The modernisation and development of kimono carried forwards into the early 20th century and the Taishō and early Shōwa periods, bringing with them a mix of new cultural influences, both of Western influence and Japanese nationalism. Kimono of these periods are identifiable by their vibrant colours and highly-varied, often incredibly modern designs.[12]:160 The Collection features items illustrating the overlap between the traditions of previous eras and the introduction of new ideas to contemporary kimono designs, with many featuring traditional motifs depicted in bold, bright colours.[12]:166-168,174
Both Art Nouveau and Art Deco found cultural purchase in kimono designs of the Taishō period,[12]:163-164 as a style of inexpensive, durable and ready-to-wear silk kimono known as meisen (lit. "common silk stuff") became immensely popular, particularly following the devastating 1923 Great Kantō earthquake,[20] after which ready-to-wear meisen kimono became widely sold following the loss of many people's possessions. Meisen kimono often featured a number of ikat-dyed and woven designs in the Art Deco style, and ranged from basic to incredibly complex in their woven patterns, a number of which are represented in the Collection. One such common example of woven trends of the 1930s, represented in the Collection, is black kimono with abstract woven patterns in red, yellow, cream and white.[12]:251–252
Mass-produced garments in new, cheap fibres such as rayon used printing to cheaply imitate traditional dyeing processes;[21] the kimono of young children, particularly during the 1930s and 40s, was often made of rayon, and was commonly printed with mass-produced modern designs, with the imagery on young boy's kimono reflecting this especially heavily through designs of skyscrapers, cars and planes.[14]
The urban culture of the Taishō period (stylised as "Taishō Roman") was marked by "modanizumu" (modernism), which utilised imported Western art movements and fashion as a way to experiment within Japanese culture.[12]:161 In many aspects of Japanese culture, debate raged over traditional aspects of Japanese culture in the face of new Western styles. For many, the new, bold designs on kimono were a comfortable middle ground combining aspects of both.[12]:162 As well as stripes and checks, these new, often geometric patterns also included the use of arabesques and swastikas - in some cases the traditional interlocking swastika motif known as sayagata, but towards the early Shōwa period, the explicitly-Third Reichswastika flag. With the rise of Japanese militarism in the 1930s, many previously-adopted aspects of Western culture were abandoned in the face of a new wave of nationalism.[17] The Collection features a number of military-themed kimono from World War II, depicting tanks, warships and aircraft. Male kimono designs, including that of young boys, adopted explicitly militaristic imagery, including soldiers, bombers and tanks.[21][22] As was common with men's kimono, the designs were featured on linings and undergarments. The kimono worn by young boys were more often openly militaristic in style.[12]:165 The Collection also has examples of highly-pictographic contemporary kimono, whose decoration celebrates modern forms of transport including ocean liners.[12]:304–306
The semi-formal, colourfully-decorated hōmongi style is also represented in the Collection in examples from this time period,[12]:170–171 as is a formal, black style with decoration limited to below the waist, known as kurotomesode.[12]:173
Examples of Taishō and early Shōwa period kimono within the Khalili Collection
Kimono for a young girl depicting drums and flowers, 1912–1926
Bridal outer kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake), 1920–1930. A wedding kimono, this depicts cranes, said to symbolise a long marriage.
Kimono for a girl (furisode), 1920–1940. An example of patterns created by stencil printing
Woman's meisen kimono woven with a skyscraper motif, 1930–1940
Publications
The collection has been the subject of two books. Kimono: The Art and Evolution of Japanese Fashion, edited by Anna Jackson, first published in English in 2015 with French and Italian translations.[2] It describes, with photographs, 220 items from the collection, including essays explaining how the evolution of the kimono reflected political, social and cultural changes in Japan.[4] Jackson is the Keeper of the Asian Department at the Victoria and Albert Museum.[1]Images of Culture: Japanese Kimono 1915–1950 by Jacqui Atkins is scheduled for future publication.[23]
The kimono is a traditional Japanese garment and the national dress of Japan. The kimono is a wrapped-front garment with square sleeves and a rectangular body, and is worn left side wrapped over right, unless the wearer is deceased. The kimono is traditionally worn with a broad sash, called an obi, and is commonly worn with accessories such as zōri sandals and tabi socks.
The Meiji era was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization by Western powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized nation state and emergent great power, influenced by Western scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As a result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas, the changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of Emperor Meiji. It was preceded by the Keiō era and was succeeded by the Taishō era, upon the accession of Emperor Taishō.
There are typically two types of clothing worn in Japan: traditional clothing known as Japanese clothing, including the national dress of Japan, the kimono, and Western clothing, which encompasses all else not recognised as either national dress or the dress of another country.
Hakama are a type of traditional Japanese clothing. Originally stemming from kù, the trousers worn by members of the Chinese imperial court in the Sui and Tang dynasties, this style was adopted by the Japanese in the form of hakama in the 6th century. Hakama are tied at the waist and fall approximately to the ankles. They are worn over a kimono specially adapted for wearing hakama, known as a hakamashita.
An obi is a belt of varying size and shape worn with both traditional Japanese clothing and uniforms for Japanese martial arts styles. Originating as a simple thin belt in Heian period Japan, the obi developed over time into a belt with a number of different varieties, with a number of different sizes and proportions, lengths, and methods of tying. The obi, which once did not differ significantly in appearance between men and women, also developed into a greater variety of styles for women than for men.
The jūnihitoe, more formally known as the itsutsuginu-karaginu-mo (五衣唐衣裳), is a style of formal court dress first worn in the Heian period by noble women and ladies-in-waiting at the Japanese Imperial Court. The jūnihitoe was composed of a number of kimono-like robes, layered on top of each other, with the outer robes cut both larger and thinner to reveal the layered garments underneath. These robes were referred to as hitoe, with the innermost robe – worn as underwear against the skin – known as the kosode. Hakama were also worn as underwear with the kosode; over time, the two would gradually become outerwear, with the kosode eventually developing into the modern-day kimono.
A furisode is a style of kimono distinguishable by its long sleeves, which range in length from 85 cm (33 in) for a kofurisode, to 114 cm (45 in) for an ōfurisode. Furisode are the most formal style of kimono worn by young unmarried women in Japan.
The Inverness cape is a form of weatherproof outer-coat. It is notable for being sleeveless, the arms emerging from armscyes beneath a cape.
The sokutai (束帯) is a traditional Japanese outfit worn only by courtiers, aristocrats and the emperor at the Japanese imperial court. The sokutai originated in the Heian period, and consists of a number of parts, including the ho, shaku (笏), a flat ritual baton or sceptre, and the kanmuri (冠), a cap-shaped black lacquered silk hat with a pennon.
The kosode was a type of short-sleeved Japanese garment, and the direct predecessor of the kimono. Though its component parts directly parallel those of the kimono, its proportions differed, typically having a wider body, a longer collar and narrower sleeves. The sleeves of the kosode were typically sewn to the body entirely, and often featured heavily rounded outer edges.
Boro (ぼろ) are a class of Japanese textiles that have been mended or patched together. The term is derived from the Japanese term "boroboro", meaning something tattered or repaired. The term 'boro' typically refers to cotton, linen and hemp materials, mostly hand-woven by peasant farmers, that have been stitched or re-woven together to create an often many-layered material used for warm, practical clothing.
Shinto weddings, Shinzen kekkon, Shinzenkekkon, began in Japan during the early 20th century, popularized after the marriage of Crown Prince Yoshihito and his bride, Princess Kujo Sadako. The ceremony relies heavily on Shinto themes of purification, and involves ceremonial sake drinking of three cups three times, the nan-nan-san-ku-do. Shinto weddings are in decline. Fewer Japanese people get married, and those who do often choose Western-style chapel ceremonies.
Yūzen (友禅) is a Japanese resist dyeing technique where dyes are applied inside outlines of dyed or undyed rice-paste resist, which may be drawn freehand or stencilled; the paste keeps the dye areas separated. Originating in the 17th century, the technique became popular as both a way of subverting sumptuary laws on dress fabrics, and also as a way to quickly produce kimono that appeared to be painted freehand with dyes. The technique was named after Miyazaki Yūzen (宮崎友禅), a 17th century fan painter who perfected the technique. Miyazaki Yūzen's fan designs became so popular that a book called the yūzen-hiinagata was published in 1688, showing similar patterns applied to kosode. A fashion for elaborate pictorial yūzen designs lasted until 1692.
The Khalili Collection of Japanese Art is a private collection of decorative art from Meiji-era (1868–1912) Japan, assembled by the British scholar, collector and philanthropist Nasser D. Khalili. Its 1,400 art works include metalwork, enamels, ceramics, lacquered objects, and textile art, making it comparable only to the collection of the Japanese imperial family in terms of size and quality. The Meiji era was a time when Japan absorbed some Western cultural influences and used international events to promote its art, which became very influential in Europe. Rather than covering the whole range of Meiji-era decorative art, Khalili has focused on objects of the highest technical and artistic quality. Some of the works were made by artists of the imperial court for the Great Exhibitions of the late 19th century. The collection is one of eight assembled, published, and exhibited by Khalili.
Japanese clothing during the Meiji period (1867–1912) saw a marked change from the preceding Edo period (1603–1867), following the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate between 1853 and 1867, the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854 – which, led by Matthew C. Perry, forcibly opened Japanese ports to American vessels, thus ending Japan's centuries-long policy of isolation – and the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which saw the feudal shogunate dismantled in favour of a Western-style modern empire.
A tanmono is a bolt of traditional Japanese narrow-loomed cloth. It is used to make traditional Japanese clothes, textile room dividers, sails, and other traditional cloth items.
Ucinaasugai, also known as Ryusou and referred as ushinchi in Okinawan, is the traditional dress of the Ryukyuan people. Ryusou is a form of formal attire; it is customary to wear it on occasions such as wedding ceremony and the coming-of-age ceremony. The ryusou became popular during the Ryukyu Kingdom period. It was originally worn by the members of the royal family and by the nobles of Ryukyu Kingdom. The Ryukyu Kingdom was originally an independent nation which established trade relationship with many countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia; they held their relationship with China as especially important. The development of the ryusou was influenced by both the hanfu and the kimono, demonstrating a combination of Chinese and Japanese influences along with local originality.
Monpe otherwise called moppe or mompei, and in Korean, ilbaji, is an umbrella term used for the traditional style of loose agricultural work-trouser in Japan. It is most commonly worn by female labourers, especially farm workers in agricultural and mountain villages. A traditional pair of monpe is recognised by having a loose waistband and a drawstring hem around each ankle. The garment is historically thought to have descended from the traditional court trousers, Hakama because of the loose shape of the trouser leg and how the piece of clothing is designed to also be worn over kimono. This style is sometimes referred to as yamabakama or nobakama.
Meisen is a type of silk fabric traditionally produced in Japan; it is durable, hard-faced, and somewhat stiff, with a slight sheen, and slubbiness is deliberately emphasised. Meisen was first produced in the late 19th century, and became widely popular during the 1920s and 30s, when it was mass-produced and ready-to-wear kimono began to be sold in Japan. Meisen is commonly dyed using kasuri techniques, and features what were then overtly modern, non-traditional designs and colours. Meisen remained popular through to the 1950s.
1 2 Iwao, Nagasaki "Clad in the aesthetics of tradition: from kosode to kimono" in Jackson, Anna (2015). Kimono: the art and evolution of Japanese fashion. London: Thames & Hudson. p.9. ISBN9780500518021. OCLC990574229.
1 2 Iwao, Nagasaki "Clad in the aesthetics of tradition: from kosode to kimono" in Jackson, Anna (2015). Kimono: the art and evolution of Japanese fashion. London: Thames & Hudson. p.10. ISBN9780500518021. OCLC990574229.
↑ Guth, Christine M. E. "The Meiji era: the ambiguities of modernization" in Jackson, Anna (2015). Kimono: the art and evolution of Japanese fashion. London: Thames & Hudson. pp.106–107. ISBN9780500518021. OCLC990574229.
↑ "Coronavirus update". Victoria and Albert Museum. 2020. Archived from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 2020-04-08.
Further reading
Khalili, David (2023). "Kimono — an interlude". The Art of Peace: Eight collections, one vision. London: Penguin Random House. pp.131–144. ISBN978-1-52991-818-2.
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Kimono for a woman (kosode) with a design inspired by the Eight Views of Ōmi , 1780–1820
Underkimono for a man (juban) using imported Indian fabrics, 1800–1850
Outer kimono for a high-class young woman (uchikake); landscape scene with bridge, pavilions and thatched huts, 1840–1870
Summer kimono for a woman depicting a landscape with fishing nets, 1820–1850
