Latte Line

Last updated
Approximation of the 'Red Rooster Line' dividing east and west Sydney. Darker areas indicate greater median weekly household income. Red rooster line.png
Approximation of the 'Red Rooster Line' dividing east and west Sydney. Darker areas indicate greater median weekly household income.

The Latte Line, also known as the Red Rooster Line, is a conceptual socioeconomic divide separating north-east and south-west Sydney. The line, which has historically coincided with the eastern limits of Sydney Red Rooster franchise locations, extends north-west from Sydney Airport, through Parramatta, and is colloquially invoked as an economic and cultural dividing line between Sydney's east and west.

Contents

While the 'Red Rooster Line' is often referred to informally, the 'Latte Line' is more typically invoked in discussions of urban planning and housing policy. The line is often seen as a demarcation of class, with the affluent eastern suburbs enjoying broadly improved liveability metrics, often to the exclusion of residents living under the Line. Correspondingly, the Latte Line is a reliable division of socioeconomic advantage, and one's position, either above or below the Line, has ramifications for housing, labour availability, health outcomes and susceptibility to urban heat and climate change.

Background

After the Second World War, Australia, and particularly metropolitan areas such as Sydney, saw rapid urbanisation and expansion. A post-war baby boom, in concert with increased immigration from Southern Europe and the Levant resulted in rising demand for housing and a resultant influx into Western Sydney. Inexpensive housing developments appeared in new suburbs across the west, and urban sprawl westward connected Sydney to Parramatta and Penrith. [1]

Urban growth continued through the 1960s and 1970s, particularly spurred by immigration following the abolition of the White Australia Policy. Vietnamese immigrants, many fleeing the Vietnam War, formed communities in Western Sydney, particularly around Cabramatta. [2] Similarly, the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 drove an influx of Lebanese immigrants to Western Sydney, who overwhelmingly settled in the suburbs of Canterbury, Lidcombe and Bankstown. [3] [4] Over time, a distinct culture emerged in Western Sydney communities. Australians living in and around these suburban immigrant communities developed a distinct 'Western Sydney accent', persisting in the second and third generations, and arising particularly from Italian, Greek and Lebanese ethnolects. [5] Some claim that even today, the accent is regarded with prejudice, as 'unsophisticated' and arising from a 'street identity'. The term 'westie' invoked similar classist overtones. Mediterranean immigrants and their children were often derided with the pejorative 'wog', a term that was reclaimed over time, and became a shared label of immigrant identiy and heritage. [6] [7]

Popular culture has correspondingly recognised a socioeconomic divide that has arisen between the 'ethnic' west and the 'affluent' north/east of the city. [8]

Origin and development

The term 'Latte Line' was likely coined by columnist and demographer Bernard Salt as a barb framing the stereotype of affluent, inner-city residents as hipster latte drinkers, a popular sentiment among conservative commentators. [9] Salt is known for favouring similar narratives, gaining notoreity for attributing declining home ownership among millennials to frivolous discretionary spending, such as on 'smashed avo' toast. [10] Salt first used the term in 2011 to describe the westward expansion of Melbourne's middle class, and would refer to it again in subsequent publications. [11] [12] Salt has also referred to a "Goat's Cheese Curtain", reflecting how upmarket cafe locations tend to be confined to the affluent inner-city. [11] The 'Latte Line' term had entered popular parlance by 2012, and became frequently referred to in discussions of public policy. [13] [14] In December 2016, the Sydney Morning Herald reported on the Latte Line, as described by Geoff Roberts, the chief of the Greater Sydney Commission, as representing the east–west divide from the standpoint of labour and housing availability. Unlike the Red Rooster example, the term 'Latte Line' does not refer to any particular data correlation, i.e. with resident drinking habits.

The term 'Red Rooster Line' was coined on Twitter by user 'Big Jez' in February 2016. [15] Moreso than a division of class, Big Jez framed the 'Red Rooster Line' as a humorous solution to the question of where Western Sydney begins. The eastern limits of Sydney Red Rooster franchise locations at the time formed a line that many regarded as an accurate representation of a Western Sydney boundary. Moreover, Red Rooster, often regarded culturally as a lower class of fast food, known for being unpopular, aligned ironically with a self-deprecating unsophisticated Western Sydney identity. [16] The term gained cultural momentum following a 2017 Honi Soit publication, which further explored how Sydney food outlet distribution tends to map to distinct socioeconomic areas, describing how Sydneysiders experience ramifications in employment, healthcare and education depending on which side of the 'food fault lines' they fall. [17]

Other names to describe similar divisions include the "Quinoa Curtain", [18] the "Colorbond Fence", [19] and the "Harris Farm Hedge". [20]

"Divided by Chicken"

The Honi Soit article mapped the distribution of a number of different food brand franchise locations, particularly chicken-based, delighting in finding that the 'Red Rooster Line' reliably acted as a margin for restaurants of both eastern and western origin. [17] The authors questioned whether this allopatric separation of brands was simply a function of consumer market forces, or whether expensive outlets contributed to a broader structural inequality excluding lower income residents. Other commentary has marked the possible expansion of higher-end chains like Chargrilled Charlie's as a sign of gentrification, threatening the borders of the 'Red Rooster Line'. [21] Conversely, others have questioned whether the conception of the line is breaking down, with traditionally Western Sydney chains like El Jannah and Frangos expanding into the east. [22] [23]

Socioeconomic ramifications

The Latte Line is an reliable division of socioeconomic advantage. [24]

If you are north of that line you are largely a 'have'...If you are south of that line, you are largely a 'have-not'

— Geoff Roberts, economic commissioner of the Greater Sydney Commission

Western Sydney suffers poorer outcomes in virtually every metric of liveability, health, education and personal economy. [25] In 2023, the Latte Line was reported to be 'hardening', with the rate of poverty rising disproportionately in Western Sydney. [26] As the result of a cost of living crisis exarcerbated by housing stress, localities around the inner west and Parramatta have reported poverty rates as high as 32%, contrasted against a statewide level of 13.4%, and 5% in the inner north.

Educational outcomes are starkly divided by the line. Both HSC and NAPLAN scores are overwhelmingly dictated by which side a student may fall on, with eastern pupils being far more likely to place above average in both measures. [27] The polarising results have been attributed to Sydney's socioeconomic stratification, with underachieving schools often being reportedly underfunded, in contrast to well-resourced schools in affluent areas. [28]

The health of Western Sydney is poor compared to the metropolitan east, [29] [30] and has been characterised as the "diabetes capital of the country". [31] Domestic violence is notably higher in suburbs like Blacktown, compared to the rest of the state. [32]

Labour and housing

The Latte Line presents a major obstacle in contemporary Sydney city planning.

NIMBYism and Property Values

Affluent communities in Sydney's north and east are often criticised as NIMBYs (Not In My BackYard), because of designed resistance to planning reforms that would allow increased density in these areas. [14] Because housing density remains low, property values are significantly inflated. Housing affordability in Sydney closely conforms to the Latte Line, with properties being almost always valued above $1m above the line, and less than, below. [33] [34] East Sydney properties are attractive investments for commercial and private property speculators, again increasing competition and price. [35] Correspondingly, urban sprawl is more and more westward, as workers seek affordable housing. [36] While west Sydney housing is more affordable, residents are disadvantaged by a documented lack of services, infrastructure and significantly, jobs. [37]

Employment Deficit

Western Sydney suffers from an employment deficit, with more residents than employment opportunities. [38] [39] High-paying professional and white-collar employment is especially concentrated in north and east Sydney, posing an impediment to prospective workers living in the west. Overall, job offerings in the west are fewer in number and offer lower incomes and slower wage growth. [14] Public transport connections between housing in the south/west and jobs in the north are lacking, with insufficient infrastructure and civil planning to accommodate the need. [40] The spatial disconnect between housing and job opportunities is a major contributor to Sydney's legendary congestion, which remains the worst in the country. [41] Peter Shergold likened the divide to an 'iron curtain', and reflected that business and industry should change their mindset of the 'gritty' western suburbs to better distribute professional and skilled labour across the city. [42] Current attempts to address this issue include the development of university and healthcare precincts in the west to boost skilled employment opportunities, as well as new rail links. The Western Sydney International Airport is expected to bring greater opportunities to the west, particularly in the defence, aerospace and advanced manufacturing industries. [43] Additionally, Premier Chris Minns has flagged a need for a shift in density zoning in the east. [44]

Climate

Map of Sydney by heat vulnerability index. Sydney Heat vulnerability index map.png
Map of Sydney by heat vulnerability index.

Land in Western Sydney, under the Latte Line is more vulnerable to heat and flooding. Western Sydney is a heat-health hotspot, with urbanised areas often reaching 10 °C hotter than other parts of the city. [45] [46] Fewer green spaces and less shade infrastructure such as bus shelters contribute to Western Sydney suffering greater heat vulnerability, which, when mapped, corresponds closely with the Latte Line. [47] [48] In contrast to 'leafy' eastern and northern suburbs, western suburbs often have less than 20% canopy cover. With areas under the line being on the frontline of climate vulnerability, the current Australian climate risk assessment projects that heat-related deaths may rise by more than 400% under current global warming models. [49]

Rapid urbanisation in the west without commensurate infrastructure not only contributes to the formation of 'heat islands' under the division, but has also disrupted 'water recharge zones'. Expanding the built environment without proportional green space has made the region more susceptible to flooding. [45] Additionally, urban sprawl continues to expand housing onto the Hawksbury-Nepean river catchment system, with these developments facing repeated flooding incidents in recent years. [50] [51]

COVID-19 response

During the COVID-19 delta outbreak, the Berejiklian ministry designated 12 local government areas as 'LGAs of Concern', most of which were in Western Sydney, under the Latte Line [52] [53] These targeted LGAs were subject to heightened policing and restrictions on freedom of movement. [52] This practice drew criticism from local politicians and community leaders, who argued that the greater blue-collar, essential worker workforce in the west were being unfairly targeted. [54] Many residents felt scapegoated, believing that the stiffer police powers and lockdown rules 'singled out' western suburbs, whereas eastern suburbs such as Bondi had merely gotten a 'slap on the wrist'. [55] Premier Gladys Berejiklian apologised following comments which were seen as fuelling a narrative blaming large ethnic family gatherings for the spread of the virus. The lockdowns were criticised in light of the particular financial vulnerability of many Western Sydney communities, [56] which emerged from COVID restrictions suffering increased unemployment. [57] Experts have underlined how the toughness of the restrictions had long-lasting effects on mental health and domestic violence rates in these vulnerable neighbourhoods. [58] [59]

In other contexts

The line reportedly delimits the beginning of a 'democracy sausage desert', with significantly fewer instances of the electoral tradition, which is usually manned by community volunteers. [60] Although significantly improved in 2025, electorates in Western Sydney have historically seen lower voter turnout than in the city's east. [61]

In other cities

While Sydney remains the most economically stratified city in Australia, [62] some commentary has referred to similar 'lines' in other cities. Bernard Salt wrote of Melbourne's 'Latte Line' in 2011 as a "milky, middle class border" that circumscribed the professional working population, and framed a westward shift as a positive cultural transformation and reorientation of the middle-class. [63] Conversely, the analogous concept of the "Goat's Cheese Curtain" or "Tofu Curtain" has been used to frame inner-city Melbournites, including politicians, as being out-of-touch. [64] Similarly, others consider such expansion of Latte Lines as gentrification, inequitably excluding those of lower income. [65] Although the concept is sometimes applied there, Melbourne does not approach the degree of economic segregation of Sydney, nor is there a clear margin of such. However, research has found a "widening divide between the well-off and the rest" in all five of Australia's largest cities—Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide. [66]

References

  1. ↑ "On Darug land - A social history of Western Sydney". Blacktown Memories. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  2. ↑ "Vietnamese Community". Fairfield City Heritage Collection. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  3. ↑ "Australia's Lebanese community is largely based in Sydney. Here's why". ABC News. 2024-10-04. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  4. ↑ "Lebanese | The Dictionary of Sydney". dictionaryofsydney.org. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  5. ↑ Rontziokos, Pamela (2024-01-25). "'It's an expression of identity': the TikToker taking the western Sydney accent to the world". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  6. ↑ Clark, Andrew (2005-10-12). "A bad word made good". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  7. ↑ "Western Sydney is dead, long live Western Sydney! | Sydney Review of Books". sydneyreviewofbooks.com. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  8. ↑ Lorio, Michael Di (2021-08-30). "2017's Viral 'Red Rooster Line' Is Still The Perfect Way To Figure Out Someone's Upbringing". PEDESTRIAN.TV. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  9. ↑ Burkeman, Oliver (2017-12-08). "Will you be able to afford a flat if you stop buying avocado toast?". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  10. ↑ "Bernard Salt, smashed avocado, hipster cafes with milk crates". 2016-10-16. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  11. 1 2 Salt, Bernard (25 February 2016). "Why did the chicken cross the divide? It didn't; not while hipsters have avocados to smash". The Australian . Archived from the original on 2024-12-30.
  12. ↑ Salt, B. (2012). The five tribes that shape our modern nation. The Australian. Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/opinion/the-five-tribes-that-shape-our-modern-nation/story-e6frg9jx-1226405893376
  13. ↑ Rowe, Emma (2015-09-02). "Theorising geo-identity and David Harvey's space: school choices of the geographically bound middle-class". Critical Studies in Education. 56 (3): 285–300. doi:10.1080/17508487.2014.969288. ISSN   1750-8487.
  14. 1 2 3 Piracha, Awais; Lee, Chyi Lin; Fan, Youqing (2018-06-21). "Another tale of two cities: access to jobs divides Sydney along the 'latte line'". The Conversation. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  15. ↑ Big Jez (7 February 2016). "Always debate about the exact definition of Western Sydney: I present the Red Rooster Line". Archived from the original on 2025-12-29.
  16. ↑ Paine, Hannah (1 Sep 2021). "Red Rooster's epic response to 'conspiracy' claims".
  17. 1 2 "Food fault lines: mapping class through food chains – Honi Soit". honisoit.com. Archived from the original on 2025-05-17. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  18. ↑ Gorrey, Shane Wright, Noel Towell, Megan (2019-05-21). "The left-right identity fault line cracks through the quinoa curtain". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2026-01-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ "The imaginary line exposing a real Sydney divide". UNSW Sites. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  20. ↑ "Food fault lines: mapping class through food chains – Honi Soit". honisoit.com. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  21. ↑ Dimou, Alana (2024-10-21). "The Four Chicken Frontiers of Sydney". Food Brood. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  22. ↑ Starkey, Erina (2025-07-21). "El Jannah's new store redraws Sydney's 'Red Rooster Line'". Good Food. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  23. ↑ "Chargrilled chicken wars: Is the Red Rooster Line being redrawn?". www.realcommercial.com.au. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  24. ↑ Saulwick, Jacob (2016-12-16). "How Sydney's planners are using the 'Latte Line' to try and reshape the city". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  25. ↑ View, The Herald's (2025-11-30). "The unequal costs that created a divided Sydney". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  26. ↑ Rose, Tamsin; Nicholas, Josh (2023-04-26). "'Latte line': poverty rises in parts of Sydney as gap hardens between city's east and west". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  27. ↑ Bagshaw, Inga Ting, Eryk (2016-12-23). "HSC results 2016: Sydney divided by education 'latte line'". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ↑ Wade, Pallavi Singhal, Matt (2018-11-27). "Where you live is determining your school's NAPLAN score". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ Reath, Jennifer; King, Marlee; Kmet, Walter; O'Halloran, Diana; Brooker, Ronald; Aspinall, Diana; Bittar, Hani; Seelan, Thava; Burke, Michael; Usherwood, Tim (2019-11-26). "Experiences of primary healthcare professionals and patients from an area of urban disadvantage: a qualitative study". BJGP Open. 3 (4) bjgpopen19X101676. doi:10.3399/bjgpopen19X101676. ISSN   2398-3795. PMC   6995866 . PMID   31772038.
  30. ↑ King, M.; Usherwood, T.; Brooker, R.; Reath, J. (2016). Supporting Primary Health Care Providers in Western Sydney Areas of Socio-Economic Disadvantage. Acton, A.C.T.: Australian Primary Health Care Research Institute, Australian National University. ISBN   978-0-646-96082-1.
  31. ↑ "It's the line that divides Sydney, and it hides a 'shameful secret'". news. Archived from the original on 2025-04-09. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  32. ↑ "Blacktown and Penrith have highest number of domestic violence incidents in NSW". WASH House Inc. 2017-09-07. Retrieved 2026-01-01.
  33. ↑ Rachwani, Mostafa (2025-10-13). "Where does western Sydney really start?". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  34. ↑ Owen, Eliza (17 Sep 2019). "Mapping the market: Which Sydney suburbs fall above or below the million-dollar price tag?".
  35. ↑ "The imaginary line exposing a real Sydney divide". UNSW Sites. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  36. ↑ Piracha, Awais; Greiss, George (2023-07-18). "NIMBYism in Sydney is leading to racist outcomes". The Conversation. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  37. ↑ Uddin, Khandakar Farid; Piracha, Awais (2021). "A tale of two cities: Housing deprivation in Sydney". Regions. doi:10.1080/13673882.2021.00001084 . Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  38. ↑ Callaghan, Greg (2019-11-15). "How a city's 'latte line' exposes Australia's economic divide". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  39. ↑ "Going west: The other side of Sydney's 'latte line'". ABC News. 2019-12-16. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  40. ↑ Gladstone, Nigel (2018-08-01). "How Sydney's latte line is splitting the workforce". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  41. ↑ "This is Australia's gridlock capital, where drivers pay the price in time and money". Drive. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  42. ↑ Knott, Matthew (2022-02-04). "Sydney stymied by 'divide of the imagination' between east and west". The Age. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  43. ↑ Saulwick, Jacob (2016-12-16). "How Sydney's planners are using the 'Latte Line' to try and reshape the city". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  44. ↑ "'Building up:' Minns puts NIMBYs on notice". news. Archived from the original on 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  45. 1 2 Noroozinejad, Omi Kumari and Ehsan (2024-12-16). "Western Sydney's urban heat is getting worse. In fact, it's unsustainable". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  46. ↑ Dumas, Daisy (2025-09-16). "Sydney's west on frontline for most extreme heat and biggest health risks – but inner city faces water threat". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  47. ↑ "2022 Heat Vulnerability Index for the Greater Sydney Region - SEED". datasets.seed.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  48. ↑ "Heat and our health". ArcGIS StoryMaps. 2024-04-15. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  49. ↑ "The solutions being explored to cool down Western Sydney". ABC News. 2025-09-15. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  50. ↑ Morrison, Nicky; Harris, Patrick (2022-03-08). "Under-resourced and undermined: as floods hit south-west Sydney, our research shows councils aren't prepared". The Conversation. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  51. ↑ Susan Rosen, Losing Ground: An Environmental History of the Hawkesbury-Nepean Catchment Area, (Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1995).
  52. 1 2 "Everything you need to know about NSW's new lockdown restrictions and curfew". ABC News. 2021-08-20. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  53. ↑ "Restrictions eased for Sydney hotspots as NSW records deadliest day of pandemic". ABC News. 2021-09-19. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  54. ↑ Shad, Saman (2021-07-09). "'Like we're children': Show of force in Sydney's south-west will put community offside". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  55. ↑ Rachwani, Mostafa; Zhou, Naaman (2021-07-08). "Western Sydney residents feel they are being 'scapegoated' as police pledge Covid crackdown". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  56. ↑ "Lockdown For Some". SPEAK YOUR TRUTH 2026. 2021-07-29. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  57. ↑ Wade, Matt (2021-11-21). "Areas with the toughest lockdowns emerge with the highest unemployment". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  58. ↑ Visontay, Elias; Taylor, Josh (2021-08-20). "Tougher Covid restrictions for western Sydney criticised for threatening wellbeing of state's poorest". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  59. ↑ Muscat, Danielle Marie; Ayre, Julie; Mac, Olivia; Batcup, Carys; Cvejic, Erin; Pickles, Kristen; Dolan, Hankiz; Bonner, Carissa; Mouwad, Dana; Zachariah, Dipti; Turalic, Una; Santalucia, Yvonne; Chen, Tingting; Vasic, Gordana; McCaffery, Kirsten J. (2022-05-01). "Psychological, social and financial impacts of COVID-19 on culturally and linguistically diverse communities in Sydney, Australia". BMJ Open. 12 (5) e058323. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058323. ISSN   2044-6055. PMC   9091490 . PMID   35537788.
  60. ↑ Democracy sausages hit an early-voting snag: Traditions. (2025, May 03). The Australian Financial Review Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/democracy-sausages-hit-early-voting-snag/docview/3199135974/se-2
  61. ↑ scheme=AGLSTERMS. AglsAgent; corporateName=Australian Electoral Commission; address=10 Mort Street, Canberra. "Turnout by division". Australian Electoral Commission. Retrieved 2025-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  62. ↑ Gurran, Nicole; Shrivastava, Rashi; Sarkar, Somwrita (2024-05-09). "Our cities are widening the divide between the well-off and the rest. How can we turn this damaging trend around?". The Conversation. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  63. ↑ "Melbourne's 'Latte Line' moving further west". The Age. 2011-04-19. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  64. ↑ Towell, Noel (2019-10-30). "Greens lambasted for being penned behind 'the goat's cheese curtain'". The Age. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  65. ↑ "Our cities are widening the divide between the well-off and the rest. How can we turn this damaging trend around? | Architecture & Design". www.architectureanddesign.com.au. Retrieved 2025-12-31.
  66. ↑ Mu, Guanglun Michael (2025), Mu, Guanglun Michael (ed.), "A Longitudinal Study of Class Relations in Australia: A Bourdieusian Multiple Correspondence Analysis", Quantifying Bourdieu in Educational Research: Traditions, Innovations, and a Reflexive Invitation, SpringerBriefs in Education, Singapore: Springer Nature, pp. 25–53, doi:10.1007/978-981-96-2132-3_3, ISBN   978-981-96-2132-3
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.