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Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention,language use,memory,perception,problem solving,creativity,and reasoning. Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism,which held from the 1920s to 1950s that unobservable mental processes were outside the realm of empirical science. This break came as researchers in linguistics and cybernetics,as well as applied psychology,used models of mental processing to explain human behavior. Work derived from cognitive psychology was integrated into other branches of psychology and various other modern disciplines like cognitive science,linguistics,and economics. The domain of cognitive psychology overlaps with that of cognitive science,which takes a more interdisciplinary approach and includes studies of non-human subjects and artificial intelligence.
Essentialism is the view that objects have a set of attributes that are necessary to their identity. In early Western thought,Platonic idealism held that all things have such an "essence"—an "idea" or "form". In Categories,Aristotle similarly proposed that all objects have a substance that,as George Lakoff put it,"make the thing what it is,and without which it would be not that kind of thing". The contrary view—non-essentialism—denies the need to posit such an "essence". Essentialism has been controversial from its beginning. In the Parmenides dialogue,Plato depicts Socrates questioning the notion,suggesting that if we accept the idea that every beautiful thing or just action partakes of an essence to be beautiful or just,we must also accept the "existence of separate essences for hair,mud,and dirt".
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition,with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both neuroscience and psychology,overlapping with disciplines such as behavioral neuroscience,cognitive psychology,physiological psychology and affective neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neurobiology,and computational modeling.
Moral reasoning is the study of how people think about right and wrong and how they acquire and apply moral rules. It is a subdiscipline of moral psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy,and is the foundation of descriptive ethics.
Modularity of mind is the notion that a mind may,at least in part,be composed of innate neural structures or mental modules which have distinct,established,and evolutionarily developed functions. However,different definitions of "module" have been proposed by different authors. According to Jerry Fodor,the author of Modularity of Mind,a system can be considered 'modular' if its functions are made of multiple dimensions or units to some degree. One example of modularity in the mind is binding. When one perceives an object,they take in not only the features of an object,but the integrated features that can operate in sync or independently that create a whole. Instead of just seeing red,round,plastic,and moving,the subject may experience a rolling red ball. Binding may suggest that the mind is modular because it takes multiple cognitive processes to perceive one thing.
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing,conceptual resources,perceptual skill,language learning,and other aspects of the developed adult brain and cognitive psychology. Qualitative differences between how a child processes their waking experience and how an adult processes their waking experience are acknowledged. Cognitive development is defined as the emergence of the ability to consciously cognize,understand,and articulate their understanding in adult terms. Cognitive development is how a person perceives,thinks,and gains understanding of their world through the relations of genetic and learning factors. There are four stages to cognitive information development. They are,reasoning,intelligence,language,and memory. These stages start when the baby is about 18 months old,they play with toys,listen to their parents speak,they watch TV,anything that catches their attention helps build their cognitive development.
Cognitive archaeology is a theoretical perspective in archaeology that focuses on the ancient mind. It is divided into two main groups:evolutionary cognitive archaeology (ECA),which seeks to understand human cognitive evolution from the material record,and ideational cognitive archaeology (ICA),which focuses on the symbolic structures discernable in or inferable from past material culture.
Michael Tomasello is an American developmental and comparative psychologist,as well as a linguist. He is professor of psychology at Duke University.
Dedre Dariel Gentner is an American cognitive and developmental psychologist. She is the Alice Gabriel Twight Professor of Psychology at Northwestern University,and a leading researcher in the study of analogical reasoning.
The cognitive revolution was an intellectual movement that began in the 1950s as an interdisciplinary study of the mind and its processes,from which emerged a new field known as cognitive science. The preexisting relevant fields were psychology,linguistics,computer science,anthropology,neuroscience,and philosophy. The approaches used were developed within the then-nascent fields of artificial intelligence,computer science,and neuroscience. In the 1960s,the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies and the Center for Human Information Processing at the University of California,San Diego were influential in developing the academic study of cognitive science. By the early 1970s,the cognitive movement had surpassed behaviorism as a psychological paradigm. Furthermore,by the early 1980s the cognitive approach had become the dominant line of research inquiry across most branches in the field of psychology.
Evolutionary educational psychology is the study of the relation between inherent folk knowledge and abilities and accompanying inferential and attributional biases as these influence academic learning in evolutionarily novel cultural contexts,such as schools and the industrial workplace. The fundamental premises and principles of this discipline are presented below.
Dan Sperber is a French social and cognitive scientist,anthropologist and philosopher. His most influential work has been in the fields of cognitive anthropology,linguistic pragmatics,psychology of reasoning,and philosophy of the social sciences. He has developed:an approach to cultural evolution known as the epidemiology of representations or cultural attraction theory as part of a naturalistic reconceptualization of the social;relevance theory;the argumentative theory of reasoning. Sperber formerly Directeur de Recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique is Professor in the Departments of Cognitive Science and of Philosophy at the Central European University in Budapest.
Domain specificity is a theoretical position in cognitive science that argues that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized,presumably evolutionarily specified,learning devices. The position is a close relative of modularity of mind,but is considered more general in that it does not necessarily entail all the assumptions of Fodorian modularity. Instead,it is properly described as a variant of psychological nativism. Other cognitive scientists also hold the mind to be modular,without the modules necessarily possessing the characteristics of Fodorian modularity.
Cognitive anthropology is an approach within cultural anthropology and biological anthropology in which scholars seek to explain patterns of shared knowledge,cultural innovation,and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences often through close collaboration with historians,ethnographers,archaeologists,linguists,musicologists,and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge,in the sense of what they think subconsciously,changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.
Susan E. Carey is an American psychologist who is a professor of psychology at Harvard University. She studies language acquisition,children's development of concepts,conceptual changes over time,and the importance of executive functions. She has conducted experiments on infants,toddlers,adults,and non-human primates. Her books include Conceptual Change in Childhood (1985) and The Origin of Concepts (2009).
Susan A. Gelman is currently Heinz Werner Distinguished University Professor of psychology and linguistics and the director of the Conceptual Development Laboratory at the University of Michigan. Gelman studies language and concept development in young children. Gelman subscribes to the domain specificity view of cognition,which asserts that the mind is composed of specialized modules supervising specific functions in the human and other animals. Her book The Essential Child is an influential work on cognitive development.
Mark Schaller is an American psychological scientist who has made many contributions to the study of human psychology,particularly in areas of social cognition,stereotyping,evolutionary psychology,and cultural psychology. He is a professor of psychology at the University of British Columbia.
Epidemiology of representations,or cultural epidemiology,is a theory for explaining cultural phenomena by examining how mental representations get distributed within a population. The theory uses medical epidemiology as its chief analogy,because "...macro-phenomena such as endemic and epidemic diseases are unpacked in terms of patterns of micro-phenomena of individual pathology and inter-individual transmission". Representations transfer via so-called "cognitive causal chains";these representations constitute a cultural phenomenon by achieving stability of public production and mental representation within the existing ecology and psychology of a populace,the latter including properties of the human mind. Cultural epidemiologists have emphasized the significance of evolved properties,such as the existence of naïve theories,domain-specific abilities and principles of relevance.
Cognitive ecology is the study of cognitive phenomena within social and natural contexts. It is an integrative perspective drawing from aspects of ecological psychology,cognitive science,evolutionary ecology and anthropology. Notions of domain-specific modules in the brain and the cognitive biases they create are central to understanding the enacted nature of cognition within a cognitive ecological framework. This means that cognitive mechanisms not only shape the characteristics of thought,but they dictate the success of culturally transmitted ideas. Because culturally transmitted concepts can often inform ecological decision-making behaviors,group-level trends in cognition are hypothesized to address ecologically relevant challenges.
Intuitive statistics,or folk statistics,is the cognitive phenomenon where organisms use data to make generalizations and predictions about the world. This can be a small amount of sample data or training instances,which in turn contribute to inductive inferences about either population-level properties,future data,or both. Inferences can involve revising hypotheses,or beliefs,in light of probabilistic data that inform and motivate future predictions. The informal tendency for cognitive animals to intuitively generate statistical inferences,when formalized with certain axioms of probability theory,constitutes statistics as an academic discipline.
References
- 1 2 3 "Lawrence Hirschfeld | U-M LSA Department of Psychology". lsa.umich.edu.
- ↑ "Lawrence A. Hirschfeld". scholar.google.com.
- 1 2 "Race in the making : cognition, culture, and the child's construction of human kinds".
- ↑ "Mapping the Mind : Domain Specificity in Cognition and Culture".
- 1 2 "Biological and Cultural Bases of Human Inference".
- ↑ Richardson, Lisa (March 13, 2001). "An Enigma Wrapped in a Mysterious Racial Identity". Los Angeles Times.
- ↑ "Mapping the mind: Domain Specificity in Cognition and Culture".
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (June 1986). "Kinship and Cognition: Genealogy and the Meaning of Kinship Terms". Current Anthropology. 27 (3): 217–242. doi:10.1086/203425.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (December 1988). "On Acquiring Social Categories: Cognitive Development and Anthropological Wisdom". Man. 23 (4): 611–638. doi:10.2307/2802596. JSTOR 2802596.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (February 1995). "Do children have a theory of race?". Cognition. 54 (2): 209–252. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)91425-r. PMID 7874877.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (October 1995). "The Inheritability of Identity: Children's Understanding of the Cultural Biology of Race". Child Development. 66 (5): 1418–1437. doi:10.2307/1131655. JSTOR 1131655.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence A.; Gelman, Susan A. (April 1997). "What young children think about the relationship between language variation and social difference". Cognitive Development. 12 (2): 213–238. doi:10.1016/S0885-2014(97)90014-9.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Gelman, S. A.; Hirschfeld, L. A. (1999). "How biological is essentialism?". In Medin, Douglas L.; Atran, Scott (eds.). Folkbiology. MIT Press. pp. 403–446. ISBN 978-0-262-63192-1.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Sperber, Dan; Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (January 2004). "The cognitive foundations of cultural stability and diversity" (PDF). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 8 (1): 40–46. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.002. PMID 14697402.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence; Bartmess, Elizabeth; White, Sarah; Frith, Uta (June 19, 2007). "Can autistic children predict behavior by social stereotypes?". Current Biology. 17 (12): R451–452. Bibcode:2007CBio...17.R451H. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.04.051 . PMID 17580071.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (2013). "The Myth of Mentalizing and the Primacy of Folk Sociology". Navigating the Social World. pp. 101–106. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199890712.003.0019. ISBN 978-0-19-989071-2.[ non-primary source needed ]
- ↑ "2024 CDS Preconference: Mapping the Mind » Child Development Labs | Boston University". www.bu.edu.
- ↑ "Ann Stoler | The New School for Social Research". www.newschool.edu.