List of earliest tools

Last updated

The following table attempts to list the oldest-known Paleolithic and Paleo-Indian sites where hominin tools have been found. It includes sites where compelling evidence of hominin tool use has been found, even if no actual tools have been found.

Contents

Stone tools preserve more readily than tools of many other materials. [1] [2] So the oldest tools that we can find in many areas are going to be stone tools. It could be that these tools were once accompanied by, or even preceded by, non-stone tools that we cannot find because they did not preserve.

Similarly, hard materials like bone or shell are more likely than softer materials to leave discernible cut marks on bone. Bamboo has been shown to leave cut marks on bone that are harder to see than cut marks by stone. [3] So the earliest evidence of tool use that we are likely to find are often cut marks made on bone by stone or shell tools. Therefore the reader should not assume that the items on this list represent the earliest uses of tools in each area, but rather the earliest uses of tools that have been found.

Because it focuses on only the earliest evidence of tools, and since the earliest evidence is biased towards stone by stone's increased likelihood of preservation, this page necessarily omits mention of many significant ancient tools of non-stone materials simply because those cases are not among the earliest found within their geographic area. See Timeline of historic inventions for other noteworthy tools and other inventions.

With its focus on tools, this list also omits some sites with the earliest evidence for the existence of hominins, but without evidence for tools. Many such sites have hominin bones, teeth, or footprints, but unless they also include evidence for tools or tool use, they are omitted here.

This list excludes tools and tool use attributed to non-hominin species. See Tool use by non-humans. Since there are far too many hominin tool sites to list on a single page, this page attempts to list the 6 or fewer top candidates for oldest tool site within each significant geographic area.

Geographic areas covered

For much of the 20th century, a "Clovis first" idea dominated American archeology. Many sites with dates too old to be compatible with "Clovis first" were published, but these were mostly dismissed under the hegemony of "Clovis first." [5] [6] Meanwhile some indigenous archeologists insisted throughout the "Clovis first" era that the peopling of the Americas was much older than Clovis. [7] Recent publications with very strong evidence for pre-Clovis sites seem to have ended the hegemony of "Clovis first." [8] [7] [6] [9]

List of tools

NameDate
(Ma)		LocationGeographic
area		SpeciesTypeNotes
Dikika [10] 3.39Hadar, EthiopiaEast Africa A. afarensis (presumed)Cut marks on boneControversial [11] [12] [13]
Lomekwi 3 [14] 3.3West Turkana, KenyaEast AfricaStone toolsMode 0 or Pre-Mode 1 stone tools are named after this site - see Stone tool
Nyayanga [15] 3.0–2.6Nyayanga, KenyaEast Africa Paranthropus (associated)Hominin remains, stone toolsSome, e.g. Kathy Shick, [16] have suggested that the user of the tools may have been early Homo butchering Paranthropus as food.
Masol [17] [18] 2.9–2.7Chandigarh, IndiaSouth AsiaStone tools and cut marks on boneControversial [19]
Bokol Dora 1 [20] (BD 1)2.6 Ledi-Geraru, EthiopiaEast AfricaStone tools
Gona [21] 2.6EthiopiaEast AfricaStone tools and cut marks on bone
Perdikkas [22]

[23]

3.0–2.5Perdikkas, GreeceEastern Europe”Butchered” mammoth bones, stone toolsControversial
Bouri Hatayae layer [24] 2.5EthiopiaEast AfricaCut marks and percussion marks on bone
Longgupo [25] 2.48 [26] Longgupo, southwest ChinaEast AsiaStone tools and dental fragmentsControversial. Russell L. Ciochon has retracted the attribution to Homo and casts doubt on the dates of the tools: "Although I no longer consider the Longgupo jaw to be human, the two stone tools still stand as described. They must have been more recent additions to the site." [27] Ciochon provides no direct evidence for his conclusion that the tools were "more recent additions."

See Wushan Man

Aïn Boucherit [28] 2.4AlgeriaNorth AfricaStone tools
Xihoudu [29] 2.4Shanxi Province, ChinaEast AsiaStone tools
Renzidong [30] [31] (Renzi Cave)2.4–2.0 [32] Renzidong, southeast ChinaEast AsiaStone toolsControversial [33] [34]
Shangchen [35] 2.1Shaanxi, ChinaEast AsiaStone tools and much later hominin remains (H. erectus)
Drimolen Main Quarry (DMQ) [36] [37] 2South AfricaSouthern Africa H. erectus,
P. robustus (associated)		Hominin remains, stone tools, bone tools
Riwat [38] 1.9Riwat, PakistanSouth AsiaStone toolsControversial - the tools were found in a "secondary context" [39]
Aïn al Fil [40] 1.8El Kowm, SyriaWest AsiaStone tools
Dmanisi [41] 1.8Dmanisi, GeorgiaWest Asia H. erectus (associated)Hominin remains, stone tools, butchery
Swartkrans [42] 1.8South AfricaSouthern Africa Homo, P. robustus (associated)Hominin remains, bone tools
Sterkfontein StW 53 [43] 1.8–1.5 [44] South AfricaSouthern AfricaCut marks on hominin boneControversial [45]
Sangiran [46] 1.6–1.5Java, Indonesia Sunda Shelf H. erectus (associated)Hominin remains, shell tool cut marks on bone
Socotra Island [47] 2.5–1.4 Socotra Island Indian Ocean H. erectus (presumed)Stone tools Oldowan stone tools. May very well be earliest evidence of seafaring.
Kozarnika, Dimovo Municipality [48] 1.4-1.6BulgariaEastern Europe H. erectus (associated)Stone tools, hominin remains, cut marks on bone
Pirro Nord [49] 1.3-1.6 [50] ItalyWestern EuropeStone tools
Sterkfontein Member 5 [51] 1.1-1.6South AfricaSouthern AfricaStone tools, Homo and Paranthropus remains
Barranco León [52] 1.2-1.4SpainWestern EuropeStone tools, animal bones, bone flakes
Bois de Riquet US 2 [53] [54] 1.2FranceWestern EuropeStone tools
Wolo Sege, So'a Basin [55] 1Flores, IndonesiaIsland Southeast Asia H. floresiensis (presumed)Stone tools
Happisburgh [56] 0.9–0.7Great BritainWestern EuropeStone tools
Kalinga site [57] 0.7Luzon, PhilippinesIsland Southeast Asia H. luzonensis (presumed)Stone tools, cut marks on boneSee Nesorhinus
Mata Menge, So'a Basin [58] 0.7Flores, IndonesiaIsland Southeast Asia H. floresiensis (presumed)Stone tools
Ounjougou [59] 0.5–0.15MaliWest AfricaStone tools
Talepu [60] 0.2SulawesiIsland Southeast AsiaStone tools
Cerutti Mastodon site [61] 0.13CaliforniaNorth AmericaCobbles, percussion marks on bonesControversial [62] [63] [64]
Warratyi Rockshelter [65] 0.049South AustraliaSahul H. sapiens (presumed)Stone and bone tools, numerous animal remains
Carpenter's Gap Shelter 1 [66] 0.049–0.044Western AustraliaSahul H. sapiens (presumed)Ground stone axe flake
Pedra Furada [67] 0.048–0.023BrazilSouth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone toolsControversial [68] [69]
Topper site [70] 0.05–0.016South Carolina, USANorth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone toolsControversial [71] [72] [73]
Hartley Mammoth Site [74] 0.037New MexicoNorth AmericaButchered bonesControversial [75] [76]
Arroyo del Viscaino [77] 0.03UruguaySouth AmericaCut marks on boneControversial [78] [79]
Chiquihuite cave [80] 0.03MexicoNorth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone tools, animal bones, charcoalControversial [81] [82]
Santa Elina Shelter [83] [84] 0.027 [85] BrazilSouth AmericaStone tools, animal bonesControversial [86]
Cactus Hill [87] 0.018Virginia, USANorth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone toolsControversial [88]
Rimrock Draw Rockshelter [89] 0.018–0.017Oregon, USANorth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone tools, animal bones
Monte Verde I [90] 0.018–0.014ChileSouth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone tools, bone fragments, charcoal
Arroyo Seco 2 [91] 0.014ArgentinaSouth America H. sapiens (presumed)Stone tools, cut marks on bone

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oldowan</span> Archaeological culture

The Oldowan was a widespread stone tool archaeological industry (style) in prehistory. These early tools were simple, usually made by chipping one, or a few, flakes off a stone using another stone. Oldowan tools were used during the Lower Paleolithic period, 2.9 million years ago up until at least 1.7 million years ago (Ma), by ancient Hominins across much of Africa. This technological industry was followed by the more sophisticated Acheulean industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solutrean</span> Archaeological industry of the European Upper Paleolithic

The Solutrean industry is a relatively advanced flint tool-making style of the Upper Paleolithic of the Final Gravettian, from around 22,000 to 17,000 BP. Solutrean sites have been found in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African archaeology</span> Archaeology conducted in Africa

Africa has the longest record of human habitation in the world. The first hominins emerged 6–7 million years ago, and among the earliest anatomically modern human skulls found so far were discovered at Omo Kibish,Jebel Irhoud, and Florisbad.

<i>Stegodon</i> Genus of extinct proboscidean

Stegodon is an extinct genus of proboscidean, related to elephants. It was originally assigned to the family Elephantidae along with modern elephants but is now placed in the extinct family Stegodontidae. Like elephants, Stegodon had teeth with plate-like lophs that are different from those of more primitive proboscideans like gomphotheres and mammutids. Fossils of the genus are known from Africa and across much of Asia, as far southeast as Timor. The oldest fossils of the genus are found in Late Miocene strata in Asia, likely originating from the more archaic Stegolophodon, subsequently migrating into Africa. While the genus became extinct in Africa during the Pliocene, Stegodon persisted in South, Southeast and Eastern Asia into the Late Pleistocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dmanisi</span> Town in Kvemo Kartli, Georgia

Dmanisi is a town and archaeological site in the Kvemo Kartli region of Georgia approximately 93 km southwest of the nation’s capital Tbilisi in the river valley of Mashavera. The hominin site is dated to 1.8 million years ago. It was the earliest known evidence of hominins outside Africa before stone tools dated to 2.1 million years were discovered in 2018 in Shangchen, China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Liang Bua</span> Cave and archaeological site in Indonesia

Liang Bua is a limestone cave on the island of Flores, Indonesia, slightly north of the town of Ruteng in Manggarai Regency, East Nusa Tenggara. The cave demonstrated archaeological and paleontological potential in the 1950s and 1960s as described by the Dutch missionary and archaeologist Theodor L. Verhoeven.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Pleistocene</span> Third division (unofficial) of the Pleistocene Epoch

The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as the Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale, preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian. The beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the transition between the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and the beginning of the Last Interglacial around 130,000 years ago. The Late Pleistocene ends with the termination of the Younger Dryas, some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jebel Irhoud</span> Archaeological site in Morocco

Jebel Irhoud or Adrar n Ighoud, is an archaeological site located just north of the town of Tlet Ighoud in Youssoufia Province, approximately 50 km (30 mi) south-east of the city of Safi in Morocco. It is noted for the hominin fossils that have been found there since the discovery of the site in 1961. Originally thought to be Neanderthals, the specimens have since been assigned to Homo sapiens and, as reported in 2017, have been dated to roughly 300,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Schöningen spears</span> Set of ten wooden weapons from the Palaeolithic Age

The Schöningen spears are a set of ten wooden weapons from the Palaeolithic Age that were excavated between 1994 and 1999 from the 'Spear Horizon' in the open-cast lignite mine in Schöningen, Helmstedt district, Germany. The spears are among the oldest hunting weapons discovered and were found together with animal bones and stone and bone tools. Being used by the oldest known group of hunters, they provided unique proof that early human ancestors were much closer to modern humans in both complex social structure and technical ability than thought before. The excavations took place under the management of Hartmut Thieme of the Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage (NLD).

<i>Homo erectus</i> Extinct species of archaic human

Homo erectus is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Its specimens are among the first recognizable members of the genus Homo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qesem cave</span> Archaeological site

Qesem cave is a Lower Paleolithic archaeological site near the town of Kafr Qasim in Israel. Early humans were occupying the site by 400,000 until c. 200,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Denisova Cave</span> Cave and archaeological site in Russia

Denisova Cave is a cave in the Bashelaksky Range of the Altai Mountains in Siberia, Russia.

<i>Homo luzonensis</i> Archaic human from Luzon, Philippines

Homo luzonensis, also known as Callao Man and locally called "Ubag" after a mythical caveman, is an extinct, possibly pygmy, species of archaic human from the Late Pleistocene of Luzon, the Philippines. Their remains, teeth and phalanges, are known only from Callao Cave in the northern part of the island dating to before 50,000 years ago. They were initially identified as belonging to modern humans in 2010, but in 2019, after the discovery of more specimens, they were placed into a new species based on the presence of a wide range of traits similar to modern humans as well as to Australopithecus and early Homo. In 2023, a study found that the fossilized remains were 134,000 ± 14,000 years old, much older than previously thought.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early expansions of hominins out of Africa</span> First hominin expansion into Eurasia (2.1–0.1 Ma)

Several expansions of populations of archaic humans out of Africa and throughout Eurasia took place in the course of the Lower Paleolithic, and into the beginning Middle Paleolithic, between about 2.1 million and 0.2 million years ago (Ma). These expansions are collectively known as Out of Africa I, in contrast to the expansion of Homo sapiens (anatomically modern humans) into Eurasia, which may have begun shortly after 0.2 million years ago.

Mata Menge is an early Middle Pleistocene paleoanthropological site located in the Ola Bula Formation in the So'a Basin on the island of Flores, Indonesia. Lithic artefacts and hominin remains have been discovered at the site. The level of sophistication of the Mata Menge lithic artefacts is described as being 'simple'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaic humans in Southeast Asia</span>

The region of Southeast Asia is considered a possible place for the evidence of archaic human remains that could be found due to the pathway between Australia and mainland Southeast Asia, where the migration of multiple early humans has occurred out of Africa. One of many pieces of evidence is of the early human found in central Java of Indonesia in the late 19th century by Eugene Dubois, and later in 1937 at Sangiran site by G.H.R. van Koenigswald. These skull and fossil materials are Homo erectus, named Pithecanthropus erectus by Dubois and Meganthropus palaeojavanicus by van Koenigswald. They were dated to c. 1.88 and 1.66 Ma, as suggested by Swisher et al. by analysis of volcanic rocks.

The Untermassfeld fossil site is a palaeontological site in Thuringia, Germany. Excavated continuously since its discovery in 1978, it has produced many fossils dating to the late Early Pleistocene or Epivillafranchian geologic period, approximately 1.2 – 0.9 million years before present (BP). Claims that hominins were also present at the site have sparked a major controversy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peopling of the Americas</span> Prehistoric migration from Asia to the Americas

The peopling of the Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers (Paleo-Indians) entered North America from the North Asian Mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge, which had formed between northeastern Siberia and western Alaska due to the lowering of sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum. These populations expanded south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and spread rapidly southward, occupying both North and South America by 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known as Paleo-Indians. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by proposed linguistic factors, the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.

Chiquihuite Cave is a possible Upper Paleolithic archaeological site in the Astillero Mountains, Zacatecas State, in North-Central Mexico. Chiquihuite Cave may be evidence of early human presence in the Western Hemisphere up to 33,000 years ago. It is located 2,740 meters above sea level and about 1 kilometer higher than the valley below. Stones discovered here, thought to be lithic artifacts, have been dated to 26,000 years ago based on more than 50 samples of animal bone and charcoal found in association with these stones. However, there is scholarly debate over whether the stones are truly artifacts, human-made tools that are evidence of human presence, or if they were formed naturally. No evidence of human DNA or hearth have been unearthed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishtail projectile point</span> Type of projectile point used in South America during the Late Pleistocene

Fishtail points, also known as Fell points are a style of Paleoindian projectile point widespread across much of South America at the end of the Late Pleistocene, around 13-12,000 years ago. They are thought to have been multifunctional, serving as cutting tools, as well as hafted to spears to use as hunting weapons, possibly in combination with spear throwers.

References

  1. ↑ Dilley, James (2020-07-01). "What Materials Were Used In The Stone Age & Where Did They Come From?". AncientCraft. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  2. ↑ Kibblewhite, Mark; Tóth, Gergely; Hermann, Tamás (2015-10-01). "Predicting the preservation of cultural artefacts and buried materials in soil". Science of the Total Environment. 529: 249–263. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.529..249K. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.036. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   26022409. S2CID   23213900.
  3. ↑ West, Jolee A.; Louys, Julien (2007-04-01). "Differentiating bamboo from stone tool cut marks in the zooarchaeological record, with a discussion on the use of bamboo knives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (4): 512–518. Bibcode:2007JArSc..34..512W. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.06.007. ISSN   0305-4403.
  4. ↑ Voris, Harold K. (2000). "Maps of Pleistocene sea levels in Southeast Asia: shorelines, river systems and time durations". Journal of Biogeography. 27 (5): 1153–1167. Bibcode:2000JBiog..27.1153V. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00489.x. ISSN   0305-0270. S2CID   85952383.
  5. ↑ Hirst, K. Kris (2018-04-11). "Guide to the Pre-Clovis Culture: Evidence (and Controversy) for Human Settlement in the Americas Before Clovis". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  6. 1 2 Choi, Charles Q (2020-07-22). "New Research Suggests Humans Arrived in the Americas Much Earlier Than Thought". Inside Science. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  7. 1 2 Martin, Nick (2021-09-24). "The White Sands discovery only confirms what Indigenous people have said all along". High Country News. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  8. ↑ "Earliest evidence for humans in the Americas". 2020-07-22. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  9. ↑ Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Higham, Thomas (2020-07-22). "The timing and effect of the earliest human arrivals in North America". Nature. 584 (7819): 93–97. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...93B. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2491-6. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   32699413. S2CID   220715918.
  10. ↑ McPherron, Shannon P.; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Marean, Curtis W.; Wynn, Jonathan G.; Reed, Denné; Geraads, Denis; Bobe, René; Béarat, Hamdallah A. (2010-08-12). "Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia". Nature. 466 (7308): 857–860. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..857M. doi:10.1038/nature09248. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   20703305. S2CID   4356816.
  11. ↑ Domínguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Pickering, Travis Rayne; Bunn, Henry T. (2010-12-07). "Configurational approach to identifying the earliest hominin butchers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (49): 20929–20934. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10720929D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1013711107 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   3000273 . PMID   21078985.
  12. ↑ Thompson, Jessica C.; McPherron, Shannon P.; Bobe, René; Reed, Denné; Barr, W. Andrew; Wynn, Jonathan G.; Marean, Curtis W.; Geraads, Denis; Alemseged, Zeresenay (2015-09-01). "Taphonomy of fossils from the hominin-bearing deposits at Dikika, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution. 86: 112–135. Bibcode:2015JHumE..86..112T. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.013. PMID   26277305.
  13. ↑ Sahle, Yonatan; El Zaatari, Sireen; White, Tim D. (2017-12-12). "Hominid butchers and biting crocodiles in the African Plio–Pleistocene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (50): 13164–13169. Bibcode:2017PNAS..11413164S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1716317114 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   5740633 . PMID   29109249.
  14. ↑ Harmand, Sonia; Lewis, Jason E.; Feibel, Craig S.; Lepre, Christopher J.; Prat, Sandrine; Lenoble, Arnaud; Boës, Xavier; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brenet, Michel; Arroyo, Adrian; Taylor, Nicholas; Clément, Sophie; Daver, Guillaume; Brugal, Jean-Philip; Leakey, Louise (May 2015). "3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   25993961. S2CID   1207285.
  15. ↑ Plummer, Thomas W.; Oliver, James S.; Finestone, Emma M.; Ditchfield, Peter W.; Bishop, Laura C.; Blumenthal, Scott A.; Lemorini, Cristina; Caricola, Isabella; Bailey, Shara E.; Herries, Andy I. R.; Parkinson, Jennifer A.; Whitfield, Elizabeth; Hertel, Fritz; Kinyanjui, Rahab N.; Vincent, Thomas H. (2023-02-10). "Expanded geographic distribution and dietary strategies of the earliest Oldowan hominins and Paranthropus". Science. 379 (6632): 561–566. Bibcode:2023Sci...379..561P. doi:10.1126/science.abo7452. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   36758076. S2CID   256697931.
  16. ↑ Burakoff, Maddie (2023-02-09). "Stone Age discovery fuels mystery of who made early tools". AP News. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  17. ↑ Dambricourt Malassé, Anne (2016-02-01). "The first Indo-French Prehistorical Mission in Siwaliks and the discovery of anthropic activities at 2.6 million years". Comptes Rendus Palevol. Human origins in the Indian sub-continent / Origines de l’homme dans le sous-continent Indien. 15 (3): 281–294. Bibcode:2016CRPal..15..281D. doi: 10.1016/j.crpv.2015.12.001 . ISSN   1631-0683.
  18. ↑ Chapon Sao, Cécile; Tudryn, Alina; Dambricourt Malassé, Anne; Moigne, Anne-Marie; Gargani, Julien; Singh, Mukesh; Abdessadok, Salah; Voinchet, Pierre; Cauche, Dominique; Karir, Baldev; Pal, Surinder (January 2024). "Magnetostratigraphy of the Pliocene Masol Formation, Siwalik Frontal Range, India: Implications for the age of intentional cut-marked fossil bones". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 259: 105884. Bibcode:2024JAESc.25905884C. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105884.
  19. ↑ Soni, Vidwan Singh; Soni, Anujot Singh (2017-06-05). "On the Late Pliocene stone tools of the Quranwala Zone, north-west sub-Himalayas, India". Antiquity. 91 (357): e1. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.43. ISSN   0003-598X. S2CID   134118052.
  20. ↑ Braun, David R.; Aldeias, Vera; Archer, Will; Arrowsmith, J Ramon; Baraki, Niguss; Campisano, Christopher J.; Deino, Alan L.; DiMaggio, Erin N.; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Engda, Blade; Feary, David A.; Garello, Dominique I.; Kerfelew, Zenash; McPherron, Shannon P.; Patterson, David B. (2019-06-11). "Earliest known Oldowan artifacts at >2.58 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia, highlight early technological diversity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (24): 11712–11717. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11611712B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1820177116 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   6575601 . PMID   31160451.
  21. ↑ Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J; Quade, Jay; Renne, Paul R; Butler, Robert F; Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Stout, Dietrich; Hart, William S; Pickering, Travis; Simpson, Scott W (August 2003). "2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution. 45 (2): 169–177. Bibcode:2003JHumE..45..169S. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00093-9. PMID   14529651.
  22. ↑ Current Anthropology, Vol 27. 1 April 1986. p. 150. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  23. ↑ "Ο Ελέφαντας του Περδίκκα και οι σχετικές περί αυτού απόψεις" . Retrieved 27 December 2024.
  24. ↑ Heinzelin, Jean de; Clark, J. Desmond; White, Tim; Hart, William; Renne, Paul; WoldeGabriel, Giday; Beyene, Yonas; Vrba, Elisabeth (1999-04-23). "Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids". Science. 284 (5414): 625–629. doi:10.1126/science.284.5414.625. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   10213682.
  25. ↑ Wanpo, Huang; Ciochon, Russell; Yumin, Gu; Larick, Roy; Qiren, Fang; Schwarcz, Henry; Yonge, Charles; de Vos, John; Rink, William (1995-11-16). "Early Homo and associated artefacts from Asia". Nature. 378 (6554): 275–278. Bibcode:1995Natur.378..275W. doi:10.1038/378275a0. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   7477345. S2CID   4352713.
  26. ↑ Han, Fei; Bahain, Jean-Jacques; Deng, Chenglong; Boëda, Éric; Hou, Yamei; Wei, Guangbiao; Huang, Wanbo; Garcia, Tristan; Shao, Qingfeng; He, Cunding; Falguères, Christophe; Voinchet, Pierre; Yin, Gongming (2017-04-01). "The earliest evidence of hominid settlement in China: Combined electron spin resonance and uranium series (ESR/U-series) dating of mammalian fossil teeth from Longgupo cave". Quaternary International. Quaternary Biostratigraphy in East Asia: A Multidisciplinary Research Approach on Gigantopithecus Fauna and Human Evolution. 434: 75–83. Bibcode:2017QuInt.434...75H. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2015.02.025 . ISSN   1040-6182.
  27. ↑ Ciochon, Russell L. (2009-06-17). "The mystery ape of Pleistocene Asia". Nature. 459 (7249): 910–911. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..910C. doi:10.1038/459910a. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   19536242. S2CID   205047272.
  28. ↑ Sahnouni, Mohamed; Parés, Josep M.; Duval, Mathieu; Cáceres, Isabel; Harichane, Zoheir; van der Made, Jan; Pérez-González, Alfredo; Abdessadok, Salah; Kandi, Nadia; Derradji, Abdelkader; Medig, Mohamed; Boulaghraif, Kamel; Semaw, Sileshi (2018-12-14). "1.9-million- and 2.4-million-year-old artifacts and stone tool–cutmarked bones from Ain Boucherit, Algeria". Science. 362 (6420): 1297–1301. Bibcode:2018Sci...362.1297S. doi:10.1126/science.aau0008. hdl: 10072/383164 . ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   30498166. S2CID   54166305.
  29. ↑ Shen, Guanjun; Wang, Yiren; Tu, Hua; Tong, Haowen; Wu, Zhenkun; Kuman, Kathleen; Fink, David; Granger, Darryl E. (2020-12-01). "Isochron 26Al/10Be burial dating of Xihoudu: Evidence for the earliest human settlement in northern China". L'Anthropologie. PaléoanthropologieGéochronologie. 124 (5): 102790. doi:10.1016/j.anthro.2020.102790. ISSN   0003-5521. S2CID   229385735.
  30. ↑ 张, 森水; 韩, 立刚; 金, 昌柱; 魏, 光飚; 郑, 龙亭; 徐, 钦琦 (2000-08-01). "繁昌人字洞旧石器遗址1998年发现的人工制品". 人类学学报 (3): 169–183+253–255. doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2000.03.001. ISSN   1000-3193.
  31. ↑ Zhang, S.; Jin, C.; Wei, G.; Xu, Q.; Han, L.; Zheng, L. (2000-08-01). "On the artifacts unearthed from the Renzidong paleolithic site in 1998". Acta Anthropologica Sinica. 19 (3): 169–183+253–255. doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2000.03.001. ISSN   1000-3193.
  32. ↑ Jin, C.; Dong, Wei; Liu, Jinyi; Wei, G.; Xu, Q.; Zheng, J.; Zheng, L.; Han, L.; Wang, F. (2000). "A preliminary study on the early Pleistocene deposits and the mammalian fauna from the Renzi Cave, Fanchang, Anhui, China". Acta Anthropologica Sinica. 19 (supplement): 235–245.
  33. ↑ Davis, Chris (2018-07-20). "Migration of early man clarified?". China Daily USA. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  34. ↑ Ciochon, Russell; Larick, Roy (2000). "Early Homo erectus Tools in China". Archeology. 51 (1).
  35. ↑ Zhu, Zhaoyu; Dennell, Robin; Huang, Weiwen; Wu, Yi; Qiu, Shifan; Yang, Shixia; Rao, Zhiguo; Hou, Yamei; Xie, Jiubing; Han, Jiangwei; Ouyang, Tingping (2018-07-11). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago". Nature. 559 (7715): 608–612. Bibcode:2018Natur.559..608Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   29995848. S2CID   49670311.
  36. ↑ Herries, Andy I. R.; Martin, Jesse M.; Leece, A. B.; Adams, Justin W.; Boschian, Giovanni; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Edwards, Tara R.; Mallett, Tom; Massey, Jason; Murszewski, Ashleigh; Neubauer, Simon; Pickering, Robyn; Strait, David S.; Armstrong, Brian J.; Baker, Stephanie (2020-04-03). "Contemporaneity of Australopithecus , Paranthropus , and early Homo erectus in South Africa". Science. 368 (6486). doi:10.1126/science.aaw7293. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   32241925. S2CID   214763272.
  37. ↑ Stammers, Rhiannon C.; Caruana, Matthew V.; Herries, Andy I.R. (2018-11-30). "The first bone tools from Kromdraai and stone tools from Drimolen, and the place of bone tools in the South African Earlier Stone Age". Quaternary International. 495: 87–101. Bibcode:2018QuInt.495...87S. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2018.04.026 . S2CID   135196415.
  38. ↑ Dennell, R.W.; Rendell, H.; Hailwood, E. (March 1988). "Early tool-making in Asia: two-million-year-old artefacts in Pakistan". Antiquity. 62 (234): 98–106. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00073555. ISSN   0003-598X. S2CID   163876857.
  39. ↑ Dennell, Robin (2007), Petraglia, Michael D.; Allchin, Bridget (eds.), ""Resource-rich, stone-poor": Early hominin land use in large river systems of northern India and Pakistan", The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 41–68, doi:10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_3, ISBN   978-1-4020-5561-4 , retrieved 2023-11-26
  40. ↑ Le Tensorer, Jean-Marie; Le Tensorer, Hélène; Martini, Pietro; von Falkenstein, Vera; Schmid, Peter; Villalain, Juan José (November–December 2015). "The Oldowan site Aïn al Fil (El Kowm, Syria) and the first humans of the Syrian Desert". L'Anthropologie. 119 (5): 581–594. doi:10.1016/j.anthro.2015.10.009.
  41. ↑ Mgeladze, Ana; Lordkipanidze, David; Moncel, Marie-Hélène; Despriee, Jackie; Chagelishvili, Rusudan; Nioradze, Medea; Nioradze, Giorgi (2011-05-01). "Hominin occupations at the Dmanisi site, Georgia, Southern Caucasus: Raw materials and technical behaviours of Europe's first hominins". Journal of Human Evolution. 60 (5): 571–596. Bibcode:2011JHumE..60..571M. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.10.008. ISSN   0047-2484. PMID   21277002.
  42. ↑ Backwell, L. R. (2001-02-13). "From the Cover: Evidence of termite foraging by Swartkrans early hominids". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (4): 1358–1363. doi: 10.1073/pnas.021551598 . PMC   29261 . PMID   11171955.
  43. ↑ Pickering, Travis Rayne; White, Tim D.; Toth, Nicholas (2000-03-21). "Brief communication: Cutmarks on a Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Sterkfontein, South Africa". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 111 (4): 579–584. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200004)111:4<579::AID-AJPA12>3.0.CO;2-Y. ISSN   0002-9483. PMID   10727975.
  44. ↑ Herries, Andy I. R.; Shaw, John (2011-05-01). "Palaeomagnetic analysis of the Sterkfontein palaeocave deposits: Implications for the age of the hominin fossils and stone tool industries". Journal of Human Evolution. 60 (5): 523–539. Bibcode:2011JHumE..60..523H. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.09.001. ISSN   0047-2484. PMID   21392817.
  45. ↑ Arriaza, M.C.; Maté González, M.A.; Aramendi, P.; de la Peña, P.; Yravedra, J.; Stratford, D. (July 2019). "Was hominin skull StW 53 (Sterkfontein, South Africa) processed with a stone tool? New evidence from a neotaphonomic experiment and the virtual reconstruction of its linear marks". Conference: ASAPA 2019 Biennial Conference, Sol Plaatje University & McGregor Museum, Kimberley. Association of Southern African Professional Archeologists: 62–63.
  46. ↑ Choi, Kildo; Driwantoro, Dubel (January 2007). "Shell tool use by early members of Homo erectus in Sangiran, central Java, Indonesia: cut mark evidence". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (1): 48–58. Bibcode:2007JArSc..34...48C. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.013.
  47. ↑ "Islands - Socotra". www.theextinctions.com. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
  48. ↑ Sirakov, N.; Guadelli, J.-L.; Ivanova, S.; Sirakova, S.; Boudadi-Maligne, M.; Dimitrova, I.; Ph, Fernandez; Ferrier, C.; Guadelli, A.; Iordanova, D.; Iordanova, N.; Kovatcheva, M.; Krumov, I.; Leblanc, J.-Cl.; Miteva, V. (2010-09-01). "An ancient continuous human presence in the Balkans and the beginnings of human settlement in western Eurasia: A Lower Pleistocene example of the Lower Palaeolithic levels in Kozarnika cave (North-western Bulgaria)". Quaternary International. 223–224: 94–106. Bibcode:2010QuInt.223...94S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.02.023.
  49. ↑ Arzarello, Marta; Peretto, Carlo; Moncel, Marie-Hélène (2015-12-02). "The Pirro Nord site (Apricena, Fg, Southern Italy) in the context of the first European peopling: Convergences and divergences". Quaternary International. The Jaramillo Subchron and the Early-Middle Pleistocene transition in continental records from a multidisciplinary perspective. 389: 255–263. Bibcode:2015QuInt.389..255A. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.051. hdl: 11392/2317019 . ISSN   1040-6182.
  50. ↑ López-García, Juan Manuel; Luzi, Elisa; Berto, Claudio; Peretto, Carlo; Arzarello, Marta (2015-01-01). "Chronological context of the first hominin occurrence in southern Europe: the Allophaiomys ruffoi (Arvicolinae, Rodentia, Mammalia) from Pirro 13 (Pirro Nord, Apulia, southwestern Italy)". Quaternary Science Reviews. 107: 260–266. Bibcode:2015QSRv..107..260L. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.10.029.
  51. ↑ Herries, Andy I.R.; Shaw, John (May 2011). "Palaeomagnetic analysis of the Sterkfontein palaeocave deposits: Implications for the age of the hominin fossils and stone tool industries". Journal of Human Evolution. 60 (5): 523–539. Bibcode:2011JHumE..60..523H. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.09.001. PMID   21392817.
  52. ↑ Toro-Moyano, Isidro; Martínez-Navarro, Bienvenido; Agustí, Jordi; Souday, Caroline; Bermúdez de Castro, José María; Martinón-Torres, María; Fajardo, Beatriz; Duval, Mathieu; Falguères, Christophe; Oms, Oriol; Parés, Josep Maria; Anadón, Pere; Julià, Ramón; García-Aguilar, José Manuel; Moigne, Anne-Marie (July 2013). "The oldest human fossil in Europe, from Orce (Spain)". Journal of Human Evolution. 65 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2013JHumE..65....1T. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.012. hdl: 10072/338463 . PMID   23481345.
  53. ↑ Bourguignon, Laurence; Crochet, Jean-Yves; Capdevila, Ramon; Ivorra, Jérôme; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier; Agustí, Jordi; Barsky, Deborah; Blain, Hugues-Alexandre; Boulbes, Nicolas; Bruxelles, Laurent; Claude, Julien; Cochard, David; Filoux, Arnaud; Firmat, Cyril; Lozano-Fernández, Iván (July 2015). "Bois-de-Riquet (Lézignan-la-Cèbe, Hérault): A late Early Pleistocene archeological occurrence in southern France". Quaternary International. 393: 24–40. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.037.
  54. ↑ Bourguignon, Laurence; Barsky, Deborah; Ivorra, Jérôme; de Weyer, Louis; Cuartero, Felipe; Capdevila, Ramon; Cavallina, Chiara; Oms, Oriol; Bruxelles, Laurent; Crochet, Jean-Yves; Garaizar, Joseba Rios (March 2016). "The stone tools from stratigraphical unit 4 of the Bois-de-Riquet site (Lézignan-la-Cèbe, Hérault, France): A new milestone in the diversity of the European Acheulian". Quaternary International. 411: 160–181. Bibcode:2016QuInt.411..160B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2016.01.065.
  55. ↑ Brumm, Adam; Jensen, Gitte M.; van den Bergh, Gert D.; Morwood, Michael J.; Kurniawan, Iwan; Aziz, Fachroel; Storey, Michael (2010-03-17). "Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago". Nature. 464 (7289): 748–752. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..748B. doi:10.1038/nature08844. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   20237472. S2CID   205219871.
  56. ↑ Parfitt, Simon A.; Ashton, Nick M.; Lewis, Simon G.; Abel, Richard L.; Coope, G. Russell; Field, Mike H.; Gale, Rowena; Hoare, Peter G.; Larkin, Nigel R.; Lewis, Mark D.; Karloukovski, Vassil; Maher, Barbara A.; Peglar, Sylvia M.; Preece, Richard C.; Whittaker, John E. (2010-07-08). "Early Pleistocene human occupation at the edge of the boreal zone in northwest Europe". Nature. 466 (7303): 229–233. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..229P. doi:10.1038/nature09117. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   20613840. S2CID   4418334.
  57. ↑ Ingicco, T.; van den Bergh, G. D.; Jago-on, C.; Bahain, J.-J.; Chacón, M. G.; Amano, N.; Forestier, H.; King, C.; Manalo, K.; Nomade, S.; Pereira, A.; Reyes, M. C.; Sémah, A.-M.; Shao, Q.; Voinchet, P. (2018-05-02). "Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago". Nature. 557 (7704): 233–237. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..233I. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   29720661. S2CID   13742336.
  58. ↑ Brumm, Adam; Aziz, Fachroel; van den Bergh, Gert D.; Morwood, Michael J.; Moore, Mark W.; Kurniawan, Iwan; Hobbs, Douglas R.; Fullagar, Richard (2006-06-01). "Early stone technology on Flores and its implications for Homo floresiensis". Nature. 441 (7093): 624–628. Bibcode:2006Natur.441..624B. doi:10.1038/nature04618. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   16738657. S2CID   4396093.
  59. ↑ Soriano, Sylvain; Rasse, Michel; Tribolo, Chantal; Huysecom, Éric (2010-09-15). "Ounjougou (Pays dogon, Mali): une séquence à haute résolution pour le Paléolithique moyen d'Afrique sahélienne". Afrique: Archéologie & Arts (in French). 6 (6): 49–66. doi:10.4000/aaa.672. ISSN   1634-3123.
  60. ↑ van den Bergh, Gerrit D.; Li, Bo; Brumm, Adam; Grün, Rainer; Yurnaldi, Dida; Moore, Mark W.; Kurniawan, Iwan; Setiawan, Ruly; Aziz, Fachroel; Roberts, Richard G.; Suyono; Storey, Michael; Setiabudi, Erick; Morwood, Michael J. (2016-01-13). "Earliest hominin occupation of Sulawesi, Indonesia". Nature. 529 (7585): 208–211. Bibcode:2016Natur.529..208V. doi:10.1038/nature16448. hdl: 10072/142470 . ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   26762458. S2CID   1756170.
  61. ↑ Holen, Steven R.; Deméré, Thomas A.; Fisher, Daniel C.; Fullagar, Richard; Paces, James B.; Jefferson, George T.; Beeton, Jared M.; Cerutti, Richard A.; Rountrey, Adam N.; Vescera, Lawrence; Holen, Kathleen A. (2017-04-27). "A 130,000-year-old archaeological site in southern California, USA". Nature. 544 (7651): 479–483. Bibcode:2017Natur.544..479H. doi:10.1038/nature22065. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   28447646. S2CID   205255425.
  62. ↑ Rincon, Paul (2017-04-26). "First Americans claim sparks controversy". BBC News. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  63. ↑ Ferrell, Patrick M. (2019-01-02). "The Cerutti Mastodon Site Reinterpreted with Reference to Freeway Construction Plans and Methods". PaleoAmerica. 5 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1080/20555563.2019.1589663. ISSN   2055-5563. S2CID   167172979.
  64. ↑ Bordes, Luc; Hayes, Elspeth; Fullagar, Richard; Deméré, Tom (December 2020). "Raman and optical microscopy of bone micro-residues on cobbles from the Cerutti mastodon site". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 34: 102656. Bibcode:2020JArSR..34j2656B. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102656. S2CID   229435292.
  65. ↑ Hamm, Giles; Mitchell, Peter; Arnold, Lee J.; Prideaux, Gavin J.; Questiaux, Daniele; Spooner, Nigel A.; Levchenko, Vladimir A.; Foley, Elizabeth C.; Worthy, Trevor H.; Stephenson, Birgitta; Coulthard, Vincent; Coulthard, Clifford; Wilton, Sophia; Johnston, Duncan (2016-11-02). "Cultural innovation and megafauna interaction in the early settlement of arid Australia". Nature. 539 (7628): 280–283. Bibcode:2016Natur.539..280H. doi:10.1038/nature20125. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   27806378. S2CID   4470503.
  66. ↑ Hiscock, Peter; O’Connor, Sue; Balme, Jane; Maloney, Tim (2016-01-02). "World's earliest ground-edge axe production coincides with human colonisation of Australia". Australian Archaeology. 82 (1): 2–11. doi:10.1080/03122417.2016.1164379. ISSN   0312-2417. S2CID   147777782.
  67. ↑ Guidon, N.; Delibrias, G. (1986-06-19). "Carbon-14 dates point to man in the Americas 32,000 years ago". Nature. 321 (6072): 769–771. Bibcode:1986Natur.321..769G. doi:10.1038/321769a0. ISSN   0028-0836. S2CID   4362045.
  68. ↑ Meltzer, David J.; Adovasio, James M.; Dillehay, Tom D. (December 1994). "On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil". Antiquity. 68 (261): 695–714. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00047414. ISSN   0003-598X. S2CID   15041308.
  69. ↑ Parenti, Fabio; Fontugue, Michel; Guérin, Claude (June 1996). "Pedra Furada in Brazil and its 'presumed' evidence: limitations and potential of the available data". Antiquity. 70 (268): 416–421. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0008337X. ISSN   0003-598X. S2CID   163184029.
  70. ↑ Goodyear, Albert C.; Sain, Douglas A. (2018-05-22), "The Pre-Clovis Occupation of the Topper Site, Allendale County, South Carolina", Early Human Life on the Southeastern Coastal Plain, University Press of Florida, pp. 8–31, doi:10.5744/florida/9781683400349.003.0002, ISBN   978-1-68340-034-9 , retrieved 2023-12-05
  71. ↑ Wilford, John Noble (2004-11-18). "Evidence Hints at Earlier Humans in Americas". New York Times. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  72. ↑ Waters, Michael R.; Forman, Steven L.; Stafford, Thomas W.; Foss, John (July 2009). "Geoarchaeological investigations at the Topper and Big Pine Tree sites, Allendale County, South Carolina". Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (7): 1300–1311. Bibcode:2009JArSc..36.1300W. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.12.020.
  73. ↑ Hanks, Micah (2018-08-12). "Topper: South Carolina's Most Controversial Archaeological Site May Be Its Oldest". Seven Ages. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  74. ↑ Rowe, Timothy B.; Stafford, Thomas W.; Fisher, Daniel C.; Enghild, Jan J.; Quigg, J. Michael; Ketcham, Richard A.; Sagebiel, J. Chris; Hanna, Romy; Colbert, Matthew W. (2022-07-07). "Human Occupation of the North American Colorado Plateau ∼37,000 Years Ago". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 10. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2022.903795 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  75. ↑ Costopoulos, Andre (2022-07-19). "Evaluating the claim of 37ky old archaeological material at the Hartley Mammoth locality in New Mexico". Archeo Thoughts. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  76. ↑ Baker, Harry (2022-08-10). "37,000-year-old mammoth butchering site may be oldest evidence of humans in North America". Live Science. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  77. ↑ Fariña, Richard A.; Tambusso, P. Sebastián; Varela, Luciano; Czerwonogora, Ada; Di Giacomo, Mariana; Musso, Marcos; Bracco, Roberto; Gascue, Andrés (2014-01-07). "Arroyo del Vizcaíno, Uruguay: a fossil-rich 30-ka-old megafaunal locality with cut-marked bones". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1774): 20132211. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2211. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   3843831 . PMID   24258717.
  78. ↑ Holcomb, Justin A.; Mandel, Rolfe D.; Otárola-Castillo, Erik; Rademaker, Kurt; Rosencrance, Richard L.; McDonough, Katelyn N.; Miller, D. Shane; Wygal, Brian T. (2022-10-02). "Does the evidence at Arroyo del Vizcaíno (Uruguay) support the claim of human occupation 30,000 years ago?". PaleoAmerica. 8 (4): 285–299. doi:10.1080/20555563.2022.2135476. ISSN   2055-5563. S2CID   254457991.
  79. ↑ Fariña, Richard A.; Tambusso, P. Sebastián; Varela, Luciano; Gascue, Andrés; Stafford, Thomas W. (2022-10-02). "Hard Facts in an Imperfect Site: The Evidence of Human Presence in the Arroyo del Vizcaíno. Reply to Holcomb et al". PaleoAmerica. 8 (4): 307–314. doi:10.1080/20555563.2022.2137927. ISSN   2055-5563. S2CID   254457993.
  80. ↑ Ardelean, Ciprian F.; Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Oviatt, Charles G.; Macías-Quintero, Juan I.; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Sikora, Martin; Ocampo-Díaz, Yam Zul E.; Rubio-Cisneros, Igor I.; Watling, Jennifer G.; de Medeiros, Vanda B.; De Oliveira, Paulo E.; Barba-Pingarón, Luis; Ortiz-Butrón, Agustín (2020-07-22). "Evidence of human occupation in Mexico around the Last Glacial Maximum". Nature. 584 (7819): 87–92. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...87A. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2509-0. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   32699412. S2CID   256819465.
  81. ↑ Chatters, James C.; Potter, Ben A.; Prentiss, Anna Marie; Fiedel, Stuart J.; Haynes, Gary; Kelly, Robert L.; Kilby, J. David; Lanoë, François; Holland-Lulewicz, Jacob; Miller, D. Shane; Morrow, Juliet E.; Perri, Angela R.; Rademaker, Kurt M.; Reuther, Joshua D.; Ritchison, Brandon T. (2022-01-02). "Evaluating Claims of Early Human Occupation at Chiquihuite Cave, Mexico". PaleoAmerica. 8 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1080/20555563.2021.1940441. ISSN   2055-5563. S2CID   239853925.
  82. ↑ Ardelean, Ciprian F.; Pedersen, Mikkel W.; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquín; Gandy, Devlin A.; Sikora, Martin; Macías-Quintero, Juan I.; Huerta-Arellano, Vladimir; De La Rosa-Díaz, Jesús J.; Ocampo-Díaz, Yam Zul E.; Rubio-Cisneros, Igor I.; Barba-Pingarón, Luis; Ortíz-Butrón, Agustín; Blancas-Vázquez, Jorge; Solís-Rosales, Corina (2022-01-02). "Chiquihuite Cave and America's Hidden Limestone Industries: A Reply to Chatters et al". PaleoAmerica. 8 (1): 17–28. doi:10.1080/20555563.2021.1985063. ISSN   2055-5563. S2CID   239877807.
  83. ↑ Vialou, Àgueda Vilhena; Vialou, Denis (2008-04-30). "Peuplements préhistoriques au Brésil". Les nouvelles de l'archéologie (in French) (111/112): 17–22. doi:10.4000/nda.214. ISSN   0242-7702.
  84. ↑ Vialou, Denis; Benabdelhadi, Mohammed; Feathers, James; Fontugne, Michel; Vialou, Agueda Vilhena (August 2017). "Peopling South America's centre: the late Pleistocene site of Santa Elina". Antiquity. 91 (358): 865–884. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.101. ISSN   0003-598X. S2CID   134327097.
  85. ↑ Pansani, Thais Rabito; Dantas, Mário André Trindade; Asevedo, Lidiane; Cherkinsky, Alexander; Vialou, Denis; Vialou, Águeda Vilhena; Pacheco, Mírian Liza Alves Forancelli (2023-07-10). "Radiocarbon dating and isotopic palaeoecology of Glossotherium phoenesis from the Late Pleistocene of the Santa Elina rock shelter, Central Brazil". Journal of Quaternary Science. 39 (8): 1186–1199. doi:10.1002/jqs.3553. ISSN   0267-8179. S2CID   259659455.
  86. ↑ Costopoulos, Andre (2023-07-26). "Evaluating the claim of 27ky old human-modified giant sloth bones from Santa Elina in central Brazil". Archeo Thoughts. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  87. ↑ Feathers, James K.; Rhodes, Edward J.; Huot, Sébastien; Mcavoy, Joseph M. (2006-08-01). "Luminescence dating of sand deposits related to late Pleistocene human occupation at the Cactus Hill Site, Virginia, USA". Quaternary Geochronology. 1 (3): 167–187. Bibcode:2006QuGeo...1..167F. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2006.05.011. ISSN   1871-1014.
  88. ↑ Hirst, K. Kris (2019-07-03). "Does Virginia's Cactus Hill Site Hold Credible Evidence for PreClovis?". Thought Co. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  89. ↑ "Testing Yields New Evidence of Human Occupation 18,000 years ago in Oregon". Bureau of Land Management. Bureau of Land Management, University of Oregon. 2023-07-06. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  90. ↑ Dillehay, Tom D.; Ocampo, Carlos; Saavedra, José; Sawakuchi, Andre Oliveira; Vega, Rodrigo M.; Pino, Mario; Collins, Michael B.; Scott Cummings, Linda; Arregui, Iván; Villagran, Ximena S.; Hartmann, Gelvam A.; Mella, Mauricio; González, Andrea; Dix, George (2015-11-18). Hart, John P. (ed.). "New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at Monte Verde, Chile". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141923. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041923D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141923 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4651426 . PMID   26580202.
  91. ↑ Politis, Gustavo G.; Gutiérrez, María A.; Rafuse, Daniel J.; Blasi, Adriana (2016-09-28). "The Arrival of Homo sapiens into the Southern Cone at 14,000 Years Ago". PLOS ONE. 11 (9): e0162870. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1162870P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162870 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   5040268 . PMID   27683248.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.