In the 19th century, several people have nominally or effectively stood out as leaders of Circassia.
In the 19th century, several people have nominally or effectively stood out as leaders of Circassia.
Between 1427 and 1453, Inal the Great conquered all Circassian principalities and declared himself the Grand Prince of Circassia. Following his death, Circassia was divided again.
The influential tribes of Circassia regularly met to elect a Grand Prince (Пщышхо) among them, with the only condition being that the prince can trace descent from Inal the Great. The existence of such an institute is confirmed by foreign sources. In the eyes of foreign observers, the Grand Prince was considered the king of the Circassians. However, the individual tribes were greatly autonomous and the title was mostly symbolic. [1] In 1237, the Dominican monks Richard and Julian, as part of the Hungarian embassy, visited Circassia and the main city of this country Matrega, located on the Taman Peninsula. In Matrega, the embassy received a good reception from the Grand Prince. [2]
In the 14th and 15th centuries Italian documents concerning the relationship between the consul of Kafa and Circassia clearly indicate the absolutely special status of the ruler of Circassia. This status allowed the senior prince of Circassia to correspond with the Pope. The letter of Pope John XXII, addressed to the Grand Prince of Zichia (Circassia) Verzacht, dates back to 1333, in which the Roman pontiff thanked the ruler for his diligence in introducing the Catholic faith among his subjects. Verzacht's power status was so high that following his example some other Circassian princes adopted Catholicism. [3]
Circassia traditionally consisted of more than a dozen principalities. Some of these principalities were divided into large feudal estates, characterized by the stability of political status. Within these territories there were numerous feudal possessions of princes (pshi). The Circassian state was a federal state consisting of four levels of government: Village council (чылэ хасэ, made up of village elders and nobles), district council (made up of representatives from 7 neighboring village councils), regional council (шъолъыр хасэ, made up from neighboring district councils), people's council (лъэпкъ зэфэс, where every council had a representative). A central government emerged during the mid to late 1800s. Prior to that, the institute of grand prince was mostly symbolic.
In 1807, Shuwpagwe Qalawebateqo self-proclaimed himself as the leader of the Circassian confederation, and divided Circassia into 12 major regions. [4] [5] [6] [7] In 1827, Ismail Berzeg officially declared the military confederation of the Circassian tribes and by 1839 united a significant part of Circassia under his control. [8] [9] In 1839, the Circassians declared Bighuqal (Anapa) as their new capital and Hawduqo Mansur was declared the new leader of the Circassian Confederation. He kept this title until his death. [10] [11] [9] In 1848, Muhammad Amin was the leader of Circassia. [12] [13] [14] After learning that a warriorly scholar has arrived, thousands of families moved to the Abdzakh region to accept his rule. [15] Seferbiy Zaneqo assumed power after Amin's departure, but died the next year.
In June 1860, at a congress of representatives of Circassians, a parliament was formed as the highest legislative body of Circassia. Being a political resistance council and the legislature of Circassia, [16] [17] [18] the parliament was established in the capital of Sochi (Adyghe : Шъачэ, romanized: Ş̂açə) on June 13, 1860, and Qerandiqo Berzeg was elected as the head of the parliament and the nation. [19] [20]
| Portrait | Name | Term of office | Tribe of origin | Profession | Status | Established effective control | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 (Coat of Arms) | Shuwpagwe Qalawebateqo | 1807–1827 | Soldier, politician | De jure |  No | [5] [6] | |
 | Ismail Berzeg | 1827–1839 | Military commander, politician | De facto |  Yes | [8] [9] | |
 | Hawduqo Mansur | 1839–1846 | Natukhaj  | Military commander, politician | De facto & De jure | Yes | [10] [11] [9] |
 | Muhammad Amin | 1848–September 1859 | Islamic preacher | De facto & De jure | Yes | [12] [13] [15] [21] | |
 | Seferbiy Zaneqo | September 1859–1 January 1860 | Diplomat, Military commander, politician | De facto | Yes | [22] [23] | |
 | Gerandiqo Berzeg | 13 June 1860 – 21 May 1864 | Military commander, politician | De facto & De jure | Yes | [24] [25] [20] |
Circassia, also known as Zichia, was a country and a historical region in Eastern Europe. It spanned the western coastal portions of the North Caucasus, along the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. Circassia was conquered by the Russian Empire during the Russo-Circassian War (1763–1864), after which approximately 90% of the Circassian people were either exiled or massacred in the Circassian genocide.
Kumyks are a Turkic ethnic group living in Dagestan, Chechnya and North Ossetia. They are the largest Turkic people in the North Caucasus.
The Circassians or Circassian people, also called Cherkess or Adyghe are a Northwest Caucasian ethnic group and nation who originated in Circassia, a region and former country in the North Caucasus. As a consequence of the Circassian genocide, which was perpetrated by the Russian Empire during the Russo-Circassian War in the 19th century, most of the Circassian people were exiled from their ancestral homeland and consequently began living in what was then the Ottoman Empire—that is, modern-day Turkey and the rest of the Middle East. In the early 1990s, the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization estimated that there are as many as 3.7 million Circassians in diaspora in over 50 countries.
The Crimean Khanate, self-defined as the Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak, and in old European historiography and geography known as Little Tartary, was a Crimean Tatar state existing from 1441–1783, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde. Established by Hacı I Giray in 1441, it was regarded as the direct heir to the Golden Horde and to Desht-i-Kipchak.
The Principality of Galicia, also known as Principality of Halych or Principality of Halychian Rus', was a medieval East Slavic principality, and one of the main regional states within the political scope of Kievan Rus', established by members of the oldest line of Yaroslav the Wise descendants. A characteristic feature of the Galician principality was the important role of the nobility and citizens in political life, and consideration a will which was the main condition for the princely rule. Halych as the capital mentioned in around 1124 as a seat of Ivan Vasylkovych the grandson of Rostislav of Tmutarakan. According to Mykhailo Hrushevsky the realm of Halych was passed to Rostyslav upon the death of his father Vladimir Yaroslavich, but he was banished out of it later by his uncle to Tmutarakan. The realm was then passed to Yaropolk Izyaslavich who was a son of the ruling Grand Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev.
The Circassian genocide, or Tsitsekun, was the systematic mass killing, ethnic cleansing, and expulsion of between 95% and 97% of the Circassian people during the final stages of the Russian invasion of Circassia in the 19th century. It resulted in the deaths of between 625,000 and 1.5 million and the destruction of Circassia, which was then annexed by the Russian Empire. Those planned for extermination were mainly the Circassians, who are predominantly Muslims, but other Muslim Caucasian peoples were also affected, as part of the Caucasian War. Notable killing methods used by the Imperial Russian Army in Circassia included impalement and tearing open the bellies of pregnant women in order to intimidate the Circassians and devastate their morale. Many Russian generals, such as Grigory Zass, described the Circassians as "subhuman filth" and a "lowly race" to justify and glorify their wholesale slaughter and their use as human test subjects in unethical scientific experiments. Russian soldiers were also permitted to rape Circassian women.
The Russo-Circassian War, also known as the Russian invasion of Circassia, was the invasion of Circassia by Russia, starting in 1763 (O.S) with the Russian Empire assuming authority in Circassia, followed by the Circassian refusal, and ending 100 years, 10 months and 6 days later with the last army of Circassia defeated on 21 May 1864 (O.S), making it exhausting and casualty-heavy for both sides. The Russo-Circassian War was the longest war both Russia and Circassia have ever fought and the longest war in the Caucasus region.
Circassian nationalism is the desire among Circassians worldwide to preserve their genes, heritage and culture, save their language from extinction, raise awareness about the Circassian genocide, return to Circassia and establish a completely autonomous or independent Circassian state in its pre-Russian invasion borders.
Inal Nekhu was the Supreme Prince (King) of Circassia from 1427 to 1453 who unified all Circassians into one state. He led campaigns into several countries and expanded borders on all directions. He was the founder of several Circassian tribes, mainly Kabardia, Besleney, Temirgoy, Zhaney, and Hatuqwai.
The Circassian Parliament or the Circassian Majlis was the legislature of Circassia officialized in 1861 after a meeting in Sochi attended by leaders of several Circassian provinces. A tribal confederation had existed before the parliament's establishment, but a centralized government was achieved only after it was built.
Seferbiy Zaneqo, or Sefer Pasha, was a Circassian diplomat and military commander who served as the 5th leader of the Circassian Confederation from 1859 to 1860. He took part in the Russo-Circassian War both in a military and a political capacity. Advocating for the Circassian cause in the west and acting as an emissary of the Ottoman Empire in the region. By the end of his life Zaneqo had emerged as the leader of the Circassian resistance.
Muhammad-Amin Asiyalav or Naib Emin Pasha was a North Caucasian military commander and Islamic preacher of Avar origin who served as the 4th leader of the Circassian Confederation from 1848 to 1859. He was one of the Circassian leaders in the Russo-Circassian War and the third naib of Imam Shamil.
Hajji Gerandiqo Berzeg was a Circassian military commander who served as the 6th leader of the Circassian Confederation from 1860 to 1864. Most of his life, including his late childhood, was spent in the Russo-Circassian War (1763-1864) fronts. He reportedly met his own son in the battlefield, where he lost two of his other sons. After the Circassian genocide, he was exiled to the Ottoman Empire, volunteered in the Ottoman army against Russia, and died there of old age.
The Circassian Union and Charity Society or Çerkes İttihat ve Teavün Cemiyeti was a Circassian nationalist charitable organization in the Ottoman Empire. It was based on several principles, mainly intellectualism, Circassian nationalism, and belief in Islam.
Shuwpagwe Qalawebateqo was a Circassian politician and military commander who served as the 1st leader of the Circassian Confederation from 1807 to 1827. He took part in the Russo-Circassian War. Not much is recorded about Qalawebateqo.
The Battle of the Urup River, also known as the Battle of Jilehoy was a confrontation between Russian troops led by General Maxim Rebinder and Circassian, Abazin and Kipchak Turkic fighters led by Sheikh Mansur. Although victorious at first, after the arrival of Russian reinforcements, Mansur and his fighters were forced to retreat.
The siege of Anapa or the storming of Anapa was a siege that took place on July 3, 1791, when the Russian Empire attacked the Turkish-regulated Anapa fort in Circassia as part of the Russo-Turkish War and the Russo-Circassian War.
Circassians is a broad ethnonym of the Turkic origin, which in Russia, Turkey and Persia used to be, and in the case of Turkey is now, applied to peoples of different ethnicities living on the North Eastern and Eastern shores of the Black Sea, and in the Northern Caucasus.
House of Berzeg (ਨ) is a Circassian privateer house of Ubykhia of Circassia, who controlled the entirety of valley of the Sochi River and entirety of the Mytykhuasua village of Ş̂açə (Sochi) until the end of Russo-Circassian War. After 1838, he acted as a diplomat between Circassia and England. They were known for their privateer activities along the Black Sea coast of Circassia. They are found in Adygea and Krasnodar Krai within Russian Federation; as well as in Republic of Turkey due to Circassian Genocide in the present day. Currently, members of House Berzeg who live in Turkey uses their original family name due to the Surname Law of the Republic of Turkey.
