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Following the Democratic Republic of the Congo's independence in 1960, mercenaries from Europe, North America, and Southern Africa have been recruited to participate in various military conflicts within the country.
Mercenary activity experienced a revival after the conclusion of the World Wars, which coincided with decolonization across Africa. As former colonies separated from European governments and transitioned into independent statehood, the existing colonial systems were dismantled. Consequently, the establishment of new national armies was necessary, and internal conflicts often arose in these transitional phases. To address these challenges, the governments of these newly independent countries often sought professional military personnel with combat experience. [1]
In the 1960s, mercenaries in Africa were able to influence conflicts in favor of the governments employing them. These mercenary companies' experience was influential in the Angolan Civil War. [2] [3]
The careers of many famous mercenaries of the 20th century began in the Congo. Modern ideas and stereotypes about mercenaries have been formed there. [1]
The Congo Crisis (1960–1965) was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo, one which began with independence from Belgium and ended when Joseph Mobutu seized power. Various factions employed mercenaries during this period, at times assisting the United Nations and other peacekeepers.
In 1960 and 1961, Mike Hoare worked as a mercenary commanding the English-speaking unit "4 Commando," which supported the breakaway state of Katanga under the leadership of Moïse Tshombe. Hoare chronicled his time in the country in his book TheRoad to Kalamata.
In 1964, then-Prime Minister of Congo Tshombe hired Major Hoare to lead a military unit called "5 Commando" made up of about 300 men, most of them from South Africa. The unit's mission was to fight a rebel group called Simbas, who already had captured almost two-thirds of the country.
In Operation Dragon Rouge, "5 Commando" worked in close cooperation with Belgian paratroopers, Cuban exile pilots, and CIA-hired mercenaries. The objective of Operation Dragon Rouge was to capture Stanleyville and save several hundred civilians (mostly Europeans and missionaries) who were hostages of the Simba rebels. The operation saved many lives; [4] however, it damaged the reputation of Moïse Tshombe as it saw the return of white mercenaries to the Congo soon after independence. This was a factor in Tshombe's loss of support from President of Congo Joseph Kasa-Vubu, who later dismissed him from his position.
During this period, Bob Denard commanded the French-speaking "6 Commando." "Black Jack" Schramme commanded "10 Commando," and William "Rip" Robertson commanded a company of anti-Castro Cuban exiles. [5]
Later, in 1966 and 1967, a group of former Tshombe mercenaries and Katangese gendarmes staged the Mercenaries' Mutinies.
In November—December 1996, with the direct participation of the French special services, the White Legion unit was formed. It was headed by Belgian Christian Tavernier. The formation joined the army of the Mobutu Sese Seko regime.
Since 2000, hired pilots from the former USSR have piloted Congolese Su-25s. Two planes with Ukrainian Mokratov (June 2007) and Belarusian Likhotkin (December 2006) were lost. [6]
In January 2017, Tutsi rebels shot down two Mi-24 helicopters with Georgian [7] and Belarusian [8] crews.
The 1966 Italian Mondo film Africa Addio documents a group of white mercenaries in the Congo fighting alongside the Congolese Army. In the film, the white mercenaries liberate the town of Boende in October 1964 from the Simba rebels. The film showed the execution of a Simba rebel by a white mercenary, which resulted in the film being temporarily seized by the Italian police. Its director, Gaultiero Jacopetti, was questioned by police on suspicion of producing a snuff film but was exonerated. [9]
Moïse Kapenda Tshombe was a Congolese businessman and politician. He served as the president of the secessionist State of Katanga from 1960 to 1963 and as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1964 to 1965.
Thomas Michael "Mad Mike" Hoare was an Irish military officer and mercenary who fought during the Simba rebellion and was involved in carrying out the 1981 Seychelles coup d'état attempt.
The Congo Crisis was a period of political upheaval and conflict between 1960 and 1965 in the Republic of the Congo. The crisis began almost immediately after the Congo became independent from Belgium and ended, unofficially, with the entire country under the rule of Joseph-Désiré Mobutu. Constituting a series of civil wars, the Congo Crisis was also a proxy conflict in the Cold War, in which the Soviet Union and the United States supported opposing factions. Around 100,000 people are believed to have been killed during the crisis.
Operation Dragon Rouge was a hostage rescue operation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo conducted jointly by Belgium and the United States in 1964. The operation was led by the Belgian Paracommando Regiment to rescue hostages held by Simba rebels in the city of Stanleyville.
Jean "Black Jack" Schramme was a Belgian mercenary and planter. He managed a vast estate in the Democratic Republic of the Congo until 1967.
The State of Katanga, also known as the Republic of Katanga, was a breakaway state that proclaimed its independence from Congo-Léopoldville on 11 July 1960 under Moïse Tshombe, leader of the local Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) political party. The new Katangese state did not enjoy full support throughout the province and was constantly plagued by ethnic strife in its northernmost region. It was dissolved in 1963 following an invasion by United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) forces, and reintegrated with the rest of the country as Katanga Province.
Dark of the Sun is a 1968 British adventure war film starring Rod Taylor, Yvette Mimieux, Jim Brown, and Peter Carsten. The film, which was directed by Jack Cardiff, is based on Wilbur Smith's 1965 novel, The Dark of the Sun. The story about a band of mercenaries sent on a dangerous mission during the Congo Crisis was adapted into a screenplay by Ranald MacDougall. Critics condemned the film on its original release for its graphic scenes of violence and torture.
The Stanleyville mutinies, also known as the Mercenaries' mutinies, occurred in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1966 and 1967.
The Simba rebellion, also known as the Orientale revolt, was a regional uprising which took place in the Democratic Republic of the Congo between 1963 and 1965 in the wider context of the Congo Crisis and the Cold War. The rebellion, located in the east of the country, was led by the followers of Patrice Lumumba, who had been ousted from power in 1960 by Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Joseph-Désiré Mobutu and subsequently killed in January 1961 in Katanga. The rebellion was contemporaneous with the Kwilu rebellion led by fellow Lumumbist Pierre Mulele in central Congo.
The Wild Geese is a 1978 novel by Rhodesian author Daniel Carney published by Bantam Books. He originally titled it The Thin White Line, but it went unpublished until its film adaptation The Wild Geese was made.
The White Legion was a mercenary unit during the First Congo War (1996–97) employed on the side of Zaire President Mobutu Sese Seko. This group of several hundred men, mostly from former Yugoslavia, was given the task of defending the city of Kisangani and training Zairean troops. This effort was largely unsuccessful and in mid-March 1997 the mercenaries left the country.
The Katangese Gendarmerie, officially the Katangese Armed Forces, was the paramilitary force of the unrecognized State of Katanga in Central Africa from 1960 to 1963. The forces were formed upon the secession of Katanga from the Republic of the Congo with help from Belgian soldiers and former officers of the Force Publique. Belgian troops also provided much of the early training for the Gendarmerie, which was mainly composed of Katangese but largely led by Belgians and later European mercenaries.
Frédéric Vandewalle was a Belgian colonel and diplomat in the Belgian Congo and independent Congo. He was an influential figure right before and after Congo's independence from Belgium. He was one of the organisers of the Katangese secession and led Operation Ommegang against the Simba rebellion during the Congo Crisis. His precise role in the assassination of Patrice Lumumba is the subject of debate among historians.
The 5 Commando was a mercenary unit of the Congolese National Army formed in response to the Simba rebellion. They were trained to be commandos and had their own air support unit. 5 Commando was active from 1964 to 1967.
4 Commando was a mercenary unit of the Armée Nationale Congolaise in the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1960 to 1961. It was formed in Katanga as a scratch unit made up of locally recruited citizens, Belgians, doctors, pilots and other mercenary volunteers from around the world. They are trained to be commando. The unit was initially created by Frédéric Vandewalle and later commanded by Lt. Col. Mike Hoare.
Mister Bob is a 2011 French drama film directed and co-scripted by Thomas Vincent.
Operation White Giant was a military offensive conducted by the forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and its allies to retake northeastern Orientale Province from insurgents during the Simba rebellion. The operation succeeded in its aims, cutting off the Simba rebels from supply by their allies in Uganda and Sudan.
Operation Violettes Imperiales was a military offensive conducted by the forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in northern Orientale Province against insurgents during the Simba rebellion. The operation succeeded in its aims, retaking the towns of Buta and Bondo as well as cutting rebel supply routes to the Central African Republic.
Operation South was a military offensive conducted by the forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Kivu against insurgents during the Simba rebellion. It was carried out by the DR Congo's regular military, the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC), mercenaries, and various foreign soldiers employed by Belgium and the United States. The operation aimed at destroying the remaining Simba strongholds and ending the rebellion. Though the insurgents were supported by allied Communist Cubans under Che Guevara and Rwandan exile groups, the operation resulted in the conquest of most rebel-held areas and effectively shattered the Simba insurgents.
The second Mobutu coup d'état, launched on November 25, 1965, was a successful coup attempt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo by General Joseph Mobutu which overthrew President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Prime Minister Evariste Kimba. The coup was caused by the political impasse between President Kasa-Vubu and Moïse Tshombe, which threatened to develop into a violent confrontation and destabilize the country even further. The coup was initially met with cautious approval domestically and abroad. It marked the end of the years-long Congo Crisis.