Millionka

Last updated

Millionka
Russian: Миллионка
simplified Chinese :百万街/百万庄; traditional Chinese :百萬街/百萬莊
Urban
Vldv millionka 1920s.jpg
Millionka in the 1920s
Plana sushchestvuiushchego i proektirovannogo raspolozheniia oblastnogo goroda Vladivostok Primorskoi oblasti.png
Millionka was located in District 18 of Vladivostok
Coordinates: 43°07′04″N131°52′52″E / 43.1178°N 131.8811°E / 43.1178; 131.8811
ConstructionLate 1880s
Liquidation and closure1936-1938
Population
 • Estimate 
(1910)
50,000

Millionka was the old Chinese quarter of Vladivostok, Russia. [1] [2] Located north of the city's railway station [3] and next to the port of Vladivostok, [4] Millionka was a neighbourhood densely occupied by three-story buildings with secret courtyards. Once known as Vladivostok's Chinatown, [3] the neighbourhood accommodated up to 50,000 Chinese residents, [5] until Joseph Stalin demanded the neighbourhood be cleared in 1936. [6] : 166  Today, as a major cultural heritage site of the city, [7] it is being transformed into the centre of fashion and cafe life in Vladivostok. [6] : 166 

Contents

History

Early Chinese settlement

Before the Russian colonisation of the Far East, the Chinese had established a frontier garrison, known as Haisenwai. The Manchu people, who ruled China during the Qing dynasty, claimed much of the region as their ancestral homeland, until the land was conceded to Russia in 1860. [8] [9] The first Russian settlement of the city was established in 1860 by Tsarist soldiers, after which the region soon developed into a city, which had a large number of Chinese.

In 1884, the population of Chinese in Vladivostok reached 3,909. [10] : 177  The city council made up a plan to evict the Chinese and Koreans to a specialised Chinese-Korean settlement, or "Kitaysko-Koreyskaya slobodka", near Kuperovskaya Pad. In 1892, the plan was approved by the Governor-General of the Primorskaya Oblast P. F. Unterberger, yet most Chinese in the city refused follow the order to move. [11] [12] In these early years, the Chinese lived scattered across the city. [13] Although the city tried to introduce a passport system for the Chinese on arrival, the local police were unable to enforce the system. As the chief of police complained in 1886, [14]

The city police are still in the dark about even the approximate number of the Chinese population in Vladivostok. It appears that the number of Chinese permanent residents reaches between 4,000 and 5,000, and of those who arrive seasonally up to 6,000. Where they come from, where they want to go and why is unknown to anyone and the very numbers are based on hearsay.

Failed relocation

On 11 September 1899 (O.S. 29 August 1899), the military governor of Khabarovsk province, Nikolai Chichagov, enacted a decree legalising the decision of the city council regarding the Chinese quarter. The evicted Chinese sent an appeal to the Senate against this decision. The latter consulted the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which recognised the right of towns to evict Chinese to special quarters no other than[ clarification needed ] with the Emperor's permission. The Governor-General of Priamursk, Nikolai Grodekov, presented to the Emperor a justification containing resolutions of the city authorities and reports of the highest officials of the governor-general's office. On 12 October 1902 (O.S. 29 September 1902), Nicholas II granted the right to city councils of the Far East to restrict the residence of Asiatic nationalities in special districts. On this basis were issued acts of municipal authorities which provided for creation of the Chinese quarter for Vladivostok in 1906. [15] : 56–67  The decision to relocate Chinese to a special Chinese settlement near Kuperovskaya Pad was opposed by Vladivostok fortress' commandant, who claimed that the foreigners might spy on military objects near the region. [16] : 63 

Formation of Millionka

In 1897, as the number of Vladivostok Chinese amounted to 5,580 people, the Chinese population gravitated to Semenovsky Kovsh, or the modern-day Sportivnaya Gavan', where there was a Chinese market named Semenovskii Bazaar, also the city's second Chinese market. [13] The residential houses for rent to the Chinese were constructed in the late 1890s, by either Russian landowners or Chinese merchants who leased the land. [15] : 55  From then on, there soon formed an unofficial Chinese residential area to the east of the market. [13] By the end of the 1910s, the majority of Vladivostok Chinese lived in quarters bordered by Semenovsky Bazaar and Amur Bay's shore to the west, by Svetlanskaya street to the south, by Aleutskaya street to the east and by the line stretching from the city abattoir (near modern sports complex Olimpiysky) along Lately Street (present-day Utkinskaya) to the north. This part of Vladivostok was known as large and small Millionka. [16] : 63  Up until 1910, there were over 50,000 Chinese living in the Chinese quarter. [16] : 63  As G. A. Sukhachova puts, [17]

"Millionka” grew together with the city... At the beginning of 1893, the number of (the Han) Chinese immigrants increased at a rate of 10,000-11,000 people annually. In 1910-1911, there were 50,000 inhabitants in "Millionka”, of whom one third were unregistered illegal immigrants. And over 40,000 had no permanent address. (Many of them) were from Manchuria, Shandong, etc.

Chinese life in Vladivostok

From the late 1890s to early 1920s, half of the city's population were Asian, while the Chinese were the largest Asian group. [18] 83.3% of the Chinese in the city were male, in a sharp contrast with the roughly gender balanced Korean and Japanese populations in the city. [18] Many of the Chinese in Millionka only lived there for a short while for a seasonal work. [17] The neighbourhood had its own small shops, theatres, opium dens, brothels, and hideouts for smugglers and thieves. The city's economy was heavily dependent on the services provided by the Chinese merchants and businessmen in the neighbourhood. [19] Specifically, the retail services of the city were controlled by the Chinese, as they had more retail shops than Russians did. [17]

The whole neighbourhood was extremely overcrowded and had poor ventilation and low levels of hygiene, which often caused local health authority to condemn the situation of the Chinese quarter in the city centre. For example, in Semenovskaia Street. House No. 5 alone, there were 59 apartments with 300 to 350 tenants. The actual number of people living in the neighbourhood could double the official figure. After a cholera outbreak in 1890, the local government described "the extreme overcrowding and the impossible sanitary situation" in the Chinese quarter. The Chinese in the city were described as a threat to public health: [13]

“[T]housands of exhausted, dirty, poorly-dressed sons of China have flooded Vladivostok … and seized all the trade and occupations … The cleanliness of your premises and luxury of your clothes will not save you from cholera. You will be infected by this terrible guest through back passages, through kitchen lice, through the cheap cooks, nannies, and lackeys.

Although the local Russian government frequently attempted to expel the Chinese from the city and to limit the activities of the Chinese, such attempts were in vain, as the Chinese remained beyond the reach of the city's official and legal establishment. [19] After the Bolsheviks took over the city in 1922, the new government considered the Chinese to be "aliens harmful from the political point of view." As the Soviet government banned free commercial enterprises in 1929, many Chinese left the city. [18] The Soviet officials often described the neighbourhood as a hub for narcotics trafficking, opium dens, and prostitution networks, considering the area to be unsanitary, dangerous, and a massive fire hazard, which were then used as an excuse to deport the Chinese residents. [3]

Liquidation and closure

On 17 April 1936, the Soviet Politburo resolved to liquidate Millionka. [20] : 105  The operation began in May 1936, as the Primorsky Krai NKVD searched and arrested undocumented tenants, criminals and brothel keepers in Millionka, expelling all other Chinese residents from the neighbourhood and confiscating all properties that belonged to Chinese citizens. [20] : 105  In May and June 1936, the Chinese consulates twice intervened in the Soviet crackdown in Millionka as the crackdown on crimes and illegal immigration raised panic among the local Chinese. [20] : 105  The Central Committee of All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) further discussed the liquidation of Millionka on 17 June 1936, with a draft response to Chinese diplomats approved. [20] : 105  Considering the negative impact of the Mutual Assistance Pact  [ ja ] between the Soviet Union and the Mongolian People's Republic, which China deemed as a separatist government, the Soviet Politburo ordered the local government to avoid leaving the impression that the operation targeted Chinese and to finish the liquidation of Millionka by the end of 1936. [21] : 42–43  [20] : 105  The municipal authority of Vladivostok also promised to provide legal Chinese residents with alternative accommodations. [20] : 105  According to Chinese diplomatic documents, from late 1935 to early 1937, the Soviet government deported several batches of Chinese. [21] : 47  However, with the war between China and Japan escalated in 1937, the Soviet Union resumed its massive deportation of Asian populations. By the end of 1930s, there was no Chinese left in Millionka. [21] : 47  According to Solzhenitsyn, there were 63,000 Chinese being sent to forced labour camps where they died. [18]

Legacy

After the deportation, Millionka became a ghost town. Shop signs were pulled down. Bordellos and all the other businesses had gone. There was no sign that the Chinese had lived in the neighbourhood. [22] For half a century, only Soviet citizens lived in Vladivostok, until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. [5] On 8 June 2010, corpses of Chinese people, suspected to be victims of the Great Purge, were re-discovered in Millionka. [23] In recent years, the neighbourhood was branded as Vladivostok's “Arbat” by the local tourist authorities, where there are upscale restaurants and boutique hotels, although there is no mention of the history of the old Chinatown. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans-Siberian Railway</span> Railway network spanning Russia

The Trans-Siberian Railway (Transsib, Транссиб connects European Russia to the Russian Far East. Spanning a length of over 9,289 kilometers, it is the longest railway line in the world. It runs from the city of Moscow in the west to the city of Vladivostok in the east.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinatown, Manhattan</span> Neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City

Manhattan's Chinatown is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, bordering the Lower East Side to its east, Little Italy to its north, Civic Center to its south, and Tribeca to its west. With an estimated population of 90,000 to 100,000 people, Chinatown is home to the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere. Manhattan's Chinatown is also one of the oldest Chinese ethnic enclaves. The Manhattan Chinatown is one of nine Chinatown neighborhoods in New York City, as well as one of twelve in the New York metropolitan area, which contains the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia, comprising an estimated 893,697 uniracial individuals as of 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian Far East</span> Geographical region

The Russian Far East is a region in Northeast Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent; and is administered as part of the Far Eastern Federal District, which is located between Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia and the Pacific Ocean. The area's largest city is Khabarovsk, followed by Vladivostok. The region shares land borders with the countries of Mongolia, China, and North Korea to its south, as well as maritime boundaries with Japan to its southeast, and with the United States along the Bering Strait to its northeast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Population transfer in the Soviet Union</span> Transfer and deportation of people in the Soviet Union

From 1930 to 1952, the government of the Soviet Union, on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin under the direction of the NKVD official Lavrentiy Beria, forcibly transferred populations of various groups. These actions may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population, deportations of entire nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill ethnically cleansed territories. Dekulakization marked the first time that an entire class was deported, whereas the deportation of Soviet Koreans in 1937 marked the precedent of a specific ethnic deportation of an entire nationality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinatown, Vancouver</span> Neighbourhood in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

Chinatown is a neighbourhood in Vancouver, British Columbia, and is Canada's largest Chinatown. Centered around Pender Street, it is surrounded by Gastown to the north, the Downtown financial and central business districts to the west, the Georgia Viaduct and the False Creek inlet to the south, the Downtown Eastside and the remnant of old Japantown to the northeast, and the residential neighbourhood of Strathcona to the southeast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinatown, Montreal</span> Neighbourhood in Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Chinatown in Montreal is located in the area of De la Gauchetière Street in Montreal. The neighbourhood contains many Asian restaurants, food markets, and convenience stores as well being home to many of Montreal's East Asian community centres, such as the Montreal Chinese Hospital and the Montreal Chinese Community and Cultural Center.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union</span> Ethnic cleansing of Koreans in the Soviet Union

The deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union was the forced transfer of nearly 172,000 Soviet Koreans (Koryo-saram) from the Russian Far East to unpopulated areas of the Kazakh SSR and the Uzbek SSR in 1937 by the NKVD on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union Vyacheslav Molotov. 124 trains were used to resettle them 6,400 km to Central Asia. The reason was to stem "the infiltration of Japanese espionage into the Far Eastern Krai", as Koreans were at the time subjects of the Empire of Japan, which was the Soviet Union's rival. However, some historians regard it as part of Stalin's policy of "frontier cleansing". Estimates based on population statistics suggest that between 16,500 and 50,000 deported Koreans died from starvation, exposure, and difficulties adapting to their new environment in exile.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinatown, Philadelphia</span> Neighborhood of Philadelphia in Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, United States

Philadelphia Chinatown is a predominantly Asian American neighborhood in Center City, Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Chinatown Development Corporation supports the area. The neighborhood stretches from Vine Street on the north; Arch Street on the south; North Franklin Street and North 7th Street on the east; to North Broad Street on the west.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Vladivostok</span>

The history of Vladivostok can be divided into the history of the land on which Vladivostok is now located and the history of the city itself. The area that is now Vladivostok was ruled by various states, such as the Mohe, the Goguryeo, the Balhae and the later Liao, Jīn and Ming dynasties. The area was ceded by China to Russia as a result of the Treaty of Aigun of 1858 and the Treaty of Peking of 1860.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinatown, Boston</span> Neighborhood of Boston in Suffolk, Massachusetts, United States

Chinatown, Boston is a neighborhood located in downtown Boston, Massachusetts, US. It is the only surviving historic ethnic Chinese enclave in New England since the demise of the Chinatowns in Providence, Rhode Island and Portland, Maine after the 1950s. Because of the high population of Asians and Asian Americans living in this area of Boston, there is an abundance of Chinese and Vietnamese restaurants located in Chinatown. It is one of the most densely populated residential areas in Boston and serves as the largest center of its East Asian and Southeast Asian cultural life. Chinatown borders the Boston Common, Downtown Crossing, the Washington Street Theatre District, Bay Village, the South End, and the Southeast Expressway/Massachusetts Turnpike. Boston's Chinatown is one of the largest Chinatowns outside of New York City.

Koryo-saram is the name which ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet states use to refer to themselves. The term is composed of two Korean words: "Koryo", a historical name for Korea, and "saram", meaning "person" or "people".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese people in Russia</span> Ethnic group in Russia

Japanese people in Russia form a small part of the worldwide community of Nikkeijin, consisting mainly of Japanese expatriates and their descendants born in Russia. They count various notable political figures among their number.

Ethnic Chinese in Russia officially numbered 39,483 according to the 2002 census. However, this figure is contested, with the Overseas Community Affairs Council of Taiwan claiming 998,000 in 2004 and 2005, and Russian demographers generally accepting estimates in the 200,000–400,000 range as of 2004. Temporary migration and shuttle trade conducted by Chinese merchants are most prevalent in Russia's Far Eastern Federal District, but most go back and forth across the border without settling down in Russia; the Chinese community in Moscow has a higher proportion of long-term residents. Their number in Russia has been shrinking since 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vladivostok</span> Administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia

Vladivostok is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Golden Horn Bay on the Sea of Japan, covering an area of 331.16 square kilometers, with a population of 600,871 residents as of 2021. Vladivostok is the second-largest city in the Far Eastern Federal District, as well as the Russian Far East, after Khabarovsk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">APEC Russia 2012</span>

The APEC Russia 2012 was the 24th annual gathering of APEC leaders. Leaders from the member economies met on Russky Island, off the coast of Vladivostok, Russia on September 9–10, 2012.

Chinatowns in Canada generally exist in the large cities of Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton, Toronto, and Montreal, and existed in some smaller towns throughout the history of Canada. Prior to 1900, almost all Chinese were located in British Columbia, but have spread throughout Canada thereafter. From 1923 to 1967, immigration from China was suspended due to exclusion laws. In 1997, the handover of Hong Kong to China caused many from there to flee to Canada due to uncertainties. Canada had about 25 Chinatowns across the country between the 1930s to 1940s, some of which have ceased to exist.

Soviet leaders and authorities officially condemned nationalism and proclaimed internationalism, including the right of nations and peoples to self-determination. The Soviet Union claimed to be supportive of self-determination and rights of many minorities and colonized peoples. However, it significantly marginalized people of certain ethnic groups designated as "enemies of the people", pushed their assimilation, and promoted chauvinistic Russian nationalistic and settler-colonialist activities in their lands in stark violation of earlier policies under Lenin. Whereas Lenin had supported and implemented policies of korenization, Stalin reversed much of his predecessor's previous internationalist policies, signing off on orders to exile multiple ethnic-linguistic groups brandished as "traitors", including the Balkars, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush, Karachays, Kalmyks, Koreans, and Meskhetian Turks, who were collectively deported to Siberia or Central Asia, where they were legally designated "special settlers", meaning that they were officially second-class citizens with few rights and were confined within small perimeters. After the death of Stalin, Khrushchev criticized the deportations based on ethnicity in a secret section of his report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, describing them as "monstrous acts" and "rude violations of the basic Leninist principles of the nationality policy of the Soviet state." Soon thereafter, in the mid to late 1950s, most deported peoples were fully rehabilitated, having been allowed the full right of return, and their national republics were restored — except for the Koreans, Crimean Tatars, and Meskhetian Turks, who were not granted the right of return and were instead forced to stay in Central Asia. The government subsequently took a variety of measures to prevent such deported peoples from returning to their native villages, ranging from denying residence permits to people of certain ethnic groups in specific areas, referring to people by incorrect ethnonyms to minimize ties to their homeland, arresting protesters for requesting a return to Leninist policies with the right of return, and spreading racist propaganda demonizing ethnic minorities.

During the 1920s and 1930s the Soviet government forcibly transferred thousands of Chinese nationals and ethnic Chinese Soviet citizens from the Russian Far East, Most of the deportees were relocated to the Chinese province of Xinjiang and Soviet-controlled Central Asia. Although there were more than 70,000 Chinese living in the Russian Far East in 1926, the Chinese had become almost extinct in the region by the 1940s. To date, the detailed history of the removal of Chinese diasporas in the region remains to be uncovered and deciphered from the Soviet records.

Operation Maki Mirage or Maki-Mirage was a Soviet intelligence operation that involved about 1200 Soviet spies being sent to China and Korea to perform intelligence gathering, "special tasks," and disinformation. The operation occurred primarily during the Interwar period, starting in the 1920s and continued into World War II. According to Soviet literature, the NKVD placed moles inside Japanese anti-Soviet operations, which allegedly involved 200 Japanese agents in the Soviet Far East. A notable aspect of the operation was the employ of East Asian agents as over 600 Soviet Koreans and Soviet Chinese were sent to spy on the Japanese Empire. The operation can be placed in the context of the Soviet Union utilizing their diaspora nationalities, otherwise treated as "last among socialist equals" and subject to forced deportations. However in Russian historiography and documentary portrayals, the participation of over 600 East Asian agents was virtually ignored.

The Chinese-Lenin School of Vladivostok was a Soviet educational institution and espionage training center established for the official purpose of educating Chinese students into comrades of socialism. It was one of the major espionage training centers of the Soviet Union, opened in late 1924 and running until early 1938. Its students included Red Army veterans, generally Soviet Koreans and Soviet Chinese born in the USSR, and communist students generally recruited in China.

References

  1. ↑ Frolovskiy, Dmitriy. "Vladivostok: The Many Lives of Russia's Far Eastern Capital". The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
  2. ↑ Verkeenko, Vitaly. "A European city with an Asian mentality and a profoundly Russian soul". Roscongress Building Trust. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
  3. 1 2 3 Jersild, Austin (29 October 2019). "Chinese in Peril in Russia: The "Millionka" in Vladivostok, 1930-1936". Wilson Center. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  4. ↑ "The Chinatown Stalin made a ghost town: Millionka in Vladivostok". South China Morning Post. 18 June 2022. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  5. 1 2 "The Chinese in Russia's Far East: A Clash of Civilizations in Vladivostok". GeoHistory. 31 August 2010. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  6. 1 2 Maçães, Bruno (2018). The Dawn of Eurasia : On the Trail of the New World Order. New Haven. ISBN   978-0-300-23593-7. OCLC   1026238833. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  7. ↑ Metlyaeva, T V; Falko, L Yu; Klochko, I L (1 March 2021). "The Image of the Urban Environment in the Context of Tourist Attractivity of Vladivostok". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 1079 (2): 022087. Bibcode:2021MS&E.1079b2087M. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/1079/2/022087 . ISSN   1757-8981. S2CID   233804773.
  8. ↑ HYER, ERIC (1996). "Dreams and Nightmares: Chinese Trade and Immigration in the Russian Far East". The Journal of East Asian Affairs. 10 (2): 289–308. ISSN   1010-1608. JSTOR   23255712. PMID   12292498.
  9. ↑ Higgins, Andrew (23 July 2016). "Vladivostok Lures Chinese Tourists (Many Think It's Theirs)". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  10. ↑ Matveev, Nikolai Petrovich (1990). Краткий исторический очерк города Владивостока [Brief historical outline of the city of Vladivostok] (in Russian). Vladivostok. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  11. ↑ Akulenko, Vadim S. (2019). "Vladivostok and the migration of Korean people to the Russian Empire". International Institute for Asian Studies. Archived from the original on 25 October 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  12. ↑ АВПРИ, ф. 148 (Тихоокеанский стол), оп. 487, д. 770, л. 160
  13. 1 2 3 4 Urbansky, Sören (Spring 2019). "A Chinese Plague: Sinophobic Discourses in Vladivostok, San Francisco, and Singapore". Bulletin of the GHI Washington (64): 75–92. ISSN   1048-9134. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  14. ↑ Glebov, Sergey (2017). "Between Foreigners and Subjects: Imperial Subjecthood, Governance, and the Chinese in the Russian Far East, 1860s–1880s". Ab Imperio. 2017 (1): 86–130. doi:10.1353/imp.2017.0005. ISSN   2164-9731. S2CID   135135149. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  15. 1 2 Sorokina, T. N. (2001). "Китайские кварталы дальневосточных городов (конец XIX – начало XX века)" [Chinese quarters of the Far Eastern cities (late 19th – early 20th century)]. Диаспоры: 2–3.
  16. 1 2 3 Suhacheva, G. A. (1993). "Обитатели "Миллионки" и другие. Деятельность тайных китайских обществ во Владивостоке в конце XIX – начале XX века" [Residents of "Millionka" and others: Activities of secret Chinese societies in Vladivostok in the late 19th – early 20th century.]. Россия и АТР: 1.
  17. 1 2 3 Iijima, Yasuo (1999). Post-Cold War Demilitarisation and "Korean Trading Diaspora" in Vladivostok: the Past and Present (PDF) (Ph. D in Planning Studies thesis). London: University College, University of London. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Patsiorkovsky, Valeri; Fugita, Stephen S.; O'Brien, David J. (1995). "Asians in Small Business in the Russian Far East: A Historical Overview and Comparison with Asians on the American West Coast". The International Migration Review. 29 (2): 566–575. doi:10.2307/2546794. ISSN   0197-9183. JSTOR   2546794. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
  19. 1 2 Richardson, William (1995). "Vladivostok: City of three eras". Planning Perspectives. 10 (1): 43–65. doi:10.1080/02665439508725812. ISSN   0266-5433. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Khisamutdinov, Amir Aleksandrovich (2018). Миллионка: Культура, выросшая в подворотне ["Millionka": a culture that grew up in the backyard](PDF) (in Russian). Vladivostok: Far Eastern Federal University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022– via eVols, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
  21. 1 2 3 Yin, Guangming (2016). "苏联处置远东华人问题的历史考察(1937–1938)" [A Historical Investigation of the Soviet Union's Handling of the Chinese Issue in the Far East (1937–1938)]. Modern Chinese History Studies (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2): 41. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2022– via Renmin University of China Library.
  22. 1 2 French, Paul (18 June 2022). "The Chinatown Stalin made a ghost town: Millionka in Vladivostok" . Post Magazine. Hong Kong: South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  23. ↑ "俄远东挖掘政治大清洗牺牲者尸骨 发现华人遗骸" [Chinese corpses found during excavation of the remains of the victims of the political purge in Russian Far East] (in Simplified Chinese). China News Service. 8 June 2010. Archived from the original on 8 July 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.