The Mir Muhammed Rebellion[b] was a Kurdish uprising led by Mir Muhammed of Rawanduz between 1830 and 1838 against the Ottoman Empire. Mir Muhammed, seeking autonomy and inspired by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, launched a campaign to unify Kurdish tribes and expand his influence in Upper Mesopotamia. The rebellion coincided with the weakening of Ottoman central authority, allowing him to challenge imperial rule until the Ottomans suppressed the uprising in 1835–1838. Following his surrender, the Soran Emirate was dissolved, and Kurdish regions were reincorporated into the Ottoman administrative structure.
Mir Muhammed of Rawanduz, emir of the Soran Emirate, emerged as a dominant regional figure in the early 1830s.[18][19] Inspired by the example of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, he aimed to establish a semi independent Kurdish state within the Ottoman Empire. He forcefully subdued neighboring Kurdish tribes and positioned himself as a significant local ruler. This period saw increasing political awareness among Kurdish notables, coupled with a growing desire for autonomy.[20][21]
Taking advantage of declining imperial control, Mir Muhammed expanded his influence into Sulaymaniyah, Erbil, and Mosul. During this campaign, he briefly allied with Bedir Khan Beg of Cizre, attempting to unite Kurdish leaders in opposition to the Ottomans.[7][22]
According to archival Ottoman sources, Mir Muhammed's territorial control included, beyond the Soran region itself, large portions of the Shahrizor region, including Koy Sanjaq, Harir, Köprü, and parts of Erbil. To the north, his domain extended into Cizre and parts of Bohtan, and by 1835 it also encompassed sections of the Bahdinan[23] and Baban Kurdish principalities.[24][25]
In 1832–1833, the Ottoman Empire faced simultaneous threats, including the Wahhabi uprising in Arabia and the revolt of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, whose influence extended into Syria and Anatolia. During this turbulent period, the Governor of Baghdad launched a major military campaign against Mir Muhammed, Emir of Soran, whose influence was steadily growing. In 1248 AH (1832–33), the governor marched with a large force in an attempt to suppress him.
However, the campaign failed. Several factors contributed to this failure, including Mir Muhammed's strong relations with Iran and his occupation of parts of the Baban region. The Governor of Baghdad was unable to subdue him and ultimately achieved no decisive result.
Faced with growing difficulties on multiple fronts, the Ottoman central administration opted to avoid further military escalation. Instead, it turned to diplomacy. In an effort to secure Mir Muhammed's loyalty and bring him nominally under imperial control, the Ottoman government granted him the honorary title of "Pasha." A peace agreement was reached, and Ottoman troops withdrew from the region.
In the aftermath, Mir Muhammed emerged even stronger, consolidating his position and expanding his authority by seizing control of the Amadiya district.[26][27]
Rebellion and Ottoman Response
The rebellion formally began in 1834, following increased Ottoman concern over Mir Muhammed's growing power. An imperial force under Reşid Mehmed Pasha was dispatched to suppress the uprising and reassert control. While Mir Muhammed initially resisted successfully, the decisive 1835 campaign led to the capture of Rawanduz. Pressured militarily and politically, Mir Muhammed retreated to the mountains and later surrendered.[7][8]
According to historian Wadie Jwaideh, a decisive blow to Mir Muhammed’s authority came when his own religious advisor, Molla Muhammed Xati, issued a fatwa declaring that anyone who fought against the army of the Caliph was an infidel and that their wives were no longer lawful to them. This ruling deeply demoralized his forces and contributed to his eventual surrender. The Ottomans also offered him assurances of protection and status in case of capitulation, further encouraging his decision.[28]
Following the death of Reşid Mehmed Pasha from cholera in 1836, he was succeeded by Hafiz Mehmed Pasha, a well educated officer with a dual mission: to continue suppressing unrest in Kurdistan and to monitor the forces of Muhammad Ali Pasha stationed in Syria.[29][30] In the summer of 1837, during a harsh military campaign against the Yazidis in the Sinjar region, Hafiz Pasha also dispatched Mehmet Hamdi Pasha to advance on Cizre. Facing pressure, Bedir Khan Beg chose not to resist and declared loyalty to the Ottoman state. As a result, he was appointed as the provincial governor of the Bohtan Emirate centered in Cizre.
Later that year, Hafiz Mehmed Pasha launched further violent operations against the Yazidis of Sinjar and Tel Afar, resulting in heavy casualties. In May 1838, with the support of Bedir Khan, he seized the fortified castle of Gurkel from local chief Said Bey of Hacıbehram. In the following months (June–July 1838), the Yazidi populations of the Garzan region were also subdued by Ottoman forces. These campaigns not only aimed to crush local resistance, but also to preempt potential Kurdish uprisings in the event of a future confrontation with Muhammad Ali of Egypt.[7][29][14]
Hacı Bekir Agha, the steward of the Baghdad Governor Ali Pasha, who came to Istanbul with Mir Muhammed, reported that the Mir held significant influence in the region and could be of great service to the state if he remained loyal. However, he also warned that pardoning the Mir and sending him back to the region would be highly problematic.[32][33]
The news of Mir’s potential return to Kurdistan especially alarmed the Governor of Baghdad. He believed that Mir Muhammed's return would only increase his influence and prestige in the region, rendering him uncontrollable. Despite the Sultan’s pardon, Baghdad Governor Ali Pasha took action to prevent Mir's return, strongly opposing it and repeatedly warning Istanbul about the dangers. Through his persistence, he managed to convince Istanbul to find an alternative solution. Ali Pasha claimed that the news of Mir's return was not well received among the people of Kurdistan and corresponded with the Commander of Sivas, suggesting that the Mir, who was en route to return, be held in Amasya until further notice.[34][35] Ultimately, with the support of the Governor of Sivas, Ali Pasha succeeded in ensuring that the returning Mir of Rawanduz would be detained in Amasya “until the matter was clarified.”[34][36]
Following Ali Pasha's persistent efforts, an imperial order was issued on 29 Safer 1253 (03.06.1837), mandating that Mir Muhammed remain in Amasya for a while.[37]
Mir Muhammed, who departed from Istanbul with Hacı Veli Agha assigned to his service, arrived in Amasya on 08 Ra 1253 (12.06.1837). There, he was presented with the imperial order by the Amasya district governor Mehmed Şakir Bey, and arrangements were made to accommodate him discreetly under security measures so as not to arouse his suspicion.[38][39]
Ali Pasha also emphasized that the matter should be communicated to the Amasya Governor in secret to avoid alarming the Mir of Rawanduz. Eventually, with the support of the Sivas Governor, Ali Pasha succeeded in convincing Istanbul that the Mir, detained in Amasya, should not even be allowed to remain in Anatolia and should be sent instead to a place like Shumen in Rumelia.[38][40]
Despite the Sultan's pardon, the influence of the Governors of Baghdad and Sivas ensured that the Mir of Rawanduz, detained in Amasya, was never able to return to Kurdistan. There is no definitive record of how he died. However, the prevailing belief is that he was the victim of an assassination. A report dated 9 Shawwal 1254 (26.12.1838) refers to Mir Muhammed of Rawanduz as deceased.[38][41]
Other link
Academy of Sciences of the USSR & Institute of Oriental Studies, Armenian SSR. (Trans. by M. Aras), The History of Kurdish Politics in Modern Times, Pêrî Publications, Istanbul, 1998, ISBN 975-8245-06-6.
Notes
1 2 [7] Bedirhan Bey, realizing that he could not resist the Ottoman army, surrendered and submitted to the Ottomans in 1837, subsequently aligning himself with their side. Instead of being punished after his surrender, he was appointed as the administrator of Cizre-Bohtan, thereby being recognized by the Ottoman administration as a trusted local governor. Later, he actively supported the Ottoman army in the bloody military campaigns led by Hafız Mehmed Pasha in the Sinjar and Garzan regions. This cooperation was part of the Ottoman effort to consolidate control over the region. [10][11] While Bedirhan Bey made no resistance whatsoever during Reşit Pasha's Eastern campaign, many ideological sources have produced imaginary scenarios of struggle and heroism, far removed from scientific historical methodology, in an attempt to mythologize Bedirhan Bey. All official records and minutes from that period, held in the Prime Ministry's Ottoman Archives, confirm our statements below. "Zekeriya Paşa hazretleri bendeleri tezkere-i mezkûrelerinde hâlâ nevâhi-i merkûme mütesellimi bulunan Bedirhan Bey'in Ferikân-ı kiramdan atüfetlü Hamdi Paşa bendeleri vâsıtasıyla müteveffâ Reşit Paşa'ya 'arz-ı dehâlet eylediğini beyân ve tezkir eylemiş iseler de hakikati şu vechledir ki müteveffâ-yı müşârün-ileyhin Cezire üzerine hareketinde mir-i müma-ileyh Mir Seyfettin ile bi'l-ittifak müteveffâ-yı müşârün-ileyhin refákatinde bulunan asâkir-i muntazama ve gayr-ı muntazamaya karşu durarak hayli dağdağa ve telâş virmiş ve birkaç gice müte'âkiben şebhün iderek müteveffâ-yı müşârün-ileyhi ziyade ıztırâba düşürmüş ve bil-âhire bi-lutfehu te'ala kuvve-i fâhire Devlet-i 'Aliyye'ye tâb-âver olamayarak 'ârfirârı irtikâb itmiş iseler dahi mir-i müma-ileyhüma tek durur malüleden olmayub bir aralık uygunsuzluğa tasaddi ideceklerini müteveffâ-yı müşârün-ileyhin vefâtından sonra âker-i mütehassıslarının Diyarbekir'e vürüd-1 'abidânemde müma-ileyh Bedirhan Bey başına bir takım haşerât cem'iyle Bohtan havâlisinde gezinmekde olduğu tahkik olunarak def -ilgası içün müşârün-ileyh Hamdi Paşa bendeleri iki alay asâkir-i mansûre ve birtakım başıbozuk asker ile Cezire taraflarına ta'yin ve çâkerleri dahi Sincar üzerine 'azimetle tâli'-i nusrat-metâli'-i hazret-i padişâhîâ asârıyla Sincar ve Tel'afer eşkıyası te'dib ve ol-havâli teshir olunduktan sonra mir-i müma-ileyh kuvve-i fâhire-i saltanat seniyyeyi görerek başında bulunan cem'iyet ile müşârün-ileyh Hamdi Paşa bendelerine 'arzı dehâlet ve cem'iyet-i mezkûreden üç beş yüz adam tutub asâkir-i mansüre alaylarına virerek ibrâzı hüsn-i hidmet eylediğine binâ-en Ferik-i müşârün-ileyh bendeleri vâsıtasıyla taraf-1 çâkerânemden i'tâ-yı re'y ve emniyetle Diyarbekir'e celb ve te'min ve sâye-i ihsân-vâye-i hazret-i mülükânede binbaşılık rütbesiyle kâm-bin ve uhdesine birkaç mahallin5 mütesellimliği bil-ihâle i'âde kılınmış ve doğrusu her hâlde müedda-yı sadakati isbât eylemiş olduğundan mu'ahharan cânib-i seniyyü'l-cevânib Devlet-i Aliyye'den Miralaylık rütbe-i refi'ası ihsân ve ânın vâsıtasıyla dahi müma-ileyh Mir Seyfettin celb ile tarafı saltanat seniyyeden Kapucubaşılık rütbesi inayetiyle mazhar-ı eltâf cenâb-ı şehriyar dâraderban olmuş ve müşirlik merkürdan infisâl-i bendeganeme kadar ikisi dahi ibráz-ı levâzım rıza-cüyu ve sadakat ve hayli başlıca hidmetlerde dahi istihdam ile izhar-1 gayret etmişler.."
↑ Aboona, Hirmis (2008). Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. p.172
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Soran Emirate