Mississippi River Watershed Conservation Programs

Last updated
Mississippi River Watershed Mississippi River Watershed.gif
Mississippi River Watershed

Conservation programs for the Mississippi River watershed have been designed to protect and preserve it by implementing practices that decrease the harmful effects of development on habitats and to overlook monitoring that helps future planning and management. A main focus is nutrient pollution from agricultural runoff of the nation's soybean, corn and food animal production, and problems relating to sediment and toxins. Conservation programs work with local farmers and producers to decrease excess nutrients because they cause major water quality problems along with hypoxia and loss of habitat. Organizations such as the Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force and USDA programs such as the Upper Mississippi River Forestry Partnership and the Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative contribute to conserving what is left of the Mississippi River watershed.

Contents

Conservation of the Mississippi River

Conservation of the Mississippi River Watershed has become an important issue that many organizations are undertaking because the capacity of the river to remove nutrients from the water is decreasing and the surrounding ecosystems are being diminished. The Mississippi River Basin encompasses 31 U.S. states with an area of 1,837,000 square miles. [1] The Mississippi River's capacity to remove nutrients has diminished due to a range of human activities, such as development, taking place along the Mississippi River itself and the streams and tributaries linked to it. The layouts of the river, the floodplains, and the watershed have also been modified using engineering techniques for acres of agriculture fields and urban expansion. With increase of natural prairie land being converted to land for agricultural and urban use, there has been an excess of nutrients that are discharged into the Mississippi River and its adjoining streams. Nitrates and Phosphorus are the two main contaminants that pollute the Mississippi River Watershed. This nutrient pollution comes from a surplus of phosphorus and nitrogen, both of which occur naturally in water and air. In the Upper Mississippi River Basin farmland, nitrate fertilizer has been overused in farming, with the high demand for corn as a contributing factor. Corn, which is used to make ethanol for biofuel, has become the number one crop in the farmland that drains into the Mississippi River. [2] Soybeans are another crop in the Upper Mississippi River Basin farmland that drain into the watershed, and nitrates are the main fertilizer used on soybeans and corn.

A variety of changes are needed in the agriculture industry to reduce the pollution from over fertilizing. One solution for nitrate reduction is to plant an alternative crop through crop rotation, such as legumes. Legumes are capable of nitrate fixation, which causes the plant to have a reduced need for nitrate fertilizer. [3] Nitrate drainage is then reduced going into the watershed because legumes do not require the high amounts of fertilizer that are needed for corn and soybeans. [4] Other alternative plants that can be used in crop rotation are miscanthus and switchgrass. These crops effectively reduce the flow of nitrates going into the Mississippi River Basin. [5]

Conservation practices can be used as alternative crops to reduce phosphorus and nitrate pollution in the River. They are necessary since nutrient pollution affects humans and aquatic life in the waterways leading to the Watershed along with the coast. The Gulf of Mexico receives the greatest damage from the pollution. [6] Normal algae growth in water is needed to provide food for fish and other water organisms, but algae can grow too quickly because of the excess nitrogen and phosphorus going into the Mississippi River Basin. The overgrowth produces an algae or algal bloom, which reduces the amount of oxygen in the water. [7] The depleted oxygen levels kill the aquatic life in the Gulf of Mexico, and it can make fish and other aquatic life sick. The depleted oxygen levels kill the aquatic life in the Gulf of Mexico, and it can make fish and other aquatic life sick. Humans can be affected if they drink water or consume fish and other aquatic life that have been contaminated with bacteria or other toxic substances from the algae blooms. Shellfish contamination from the algae occurs easily, and it can be very dangerous for human consumption and cause stomach issues and rashes. [8]

Millions of people throughout the United States have a water source connected to the Mississippi River Watershed because the basin is connected to groundwater, well water, and other water supply tributaries throughout the country. The watershed also serves as largest drainage system in the country. [7] Drinking water from the basin that is polluted by nitrates and phosphorus can cause serious injury to anyone who consumes it, especially young infants. The chemicals that are used to treat the polluted water are very dangerous. These chemicals cannot be avoided since there are no real alternatives to treat the polluted water. [9] The contaminated water source also harms forests that are located in the basin, and animals can be affected if they consume water or plants that have been contaminated by the nutrient pollution. Nitrates and phosphorus also pollute the air, and if the air is polluted, eventually the contamination will fall back to the earth and the waterway making its way through the basin. [10]

Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force

The Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force undertakes the challenge of eliminating the dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico as well as promoting the implementation of new farming practices and nutrient runoff management. The Mississippi River dumps high nutrient runoff from the vast drainage basin into the Gulf of Mexico causing an outbreak of algae growth. The excess algae create an area where the dissolved oxygen concentration is very low in the bottom waters. [11] Many organisms cannot tolerate low-oxygen levels and either leave the area or become weakened or die from lack of oxygen. A majority of the nutrient loadings originate from the draining of agricultural lands north of the Ohio River in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, southern Minnesota, and Ohio. [12] Nitrates and Phosphorus are the two main contaminants that pollute the Mississippi River Watershed. This nutrient pollution comes from a surplus of phosphorus and nitrogen, both of which occur naturally in water and air.

2001 Action Plan

The 2001 Action Plan is a national strategy to reduce Gulf hypoxia with a focus on reducing the nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient loads to the northern Gulf coming from the Mississippi River. The Action Plan proposes three goals: a Coastal Goal, a Within Basin Goal, and a Quality of Life Goal. [12] The Coastal Goal intends to reduce the square mileage of hypoxia in the Gulf to 5,000 square kilometers by the implementation of actions to reduce the discharge of nutrients into the Gulf. The Within Basin Goal is to restore and protect the waters of the Mississippi River Basin by implementing nutrient and sedimentation reduction actions that will protect human health and aquatic organisms and reduce the nutrient load released into the Gulf. Lastly, the Quality of Life Goal is to improve communities across the Mississippi River Basin through land management and an incentive based approach. The Action Plan states that by December 2005, and every five years thereafter, the Task Force will review the reductions in nutrient load discharge and the response of the dead zone in the Gulf. From this data, the Task Force would then decide what actions to take to continue achieving the goals.

2008 Action Plan

The 2008 Action Plan further describes a national strategy to address the problem with hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico and also improve the water quality in the Mississippi River. The 2008 Action Plan was a reassessment called for in the 2001 Action Plan. The 2008 Action Plan outlines the significance of completing and implementing nutrient reduction strategies, promoting these practices, and also increasing the awareness of the public of hypoxia in the Gulf. Included in the 2008 Action Plan is a series of five Annual Operating Plans, one for each of the upcoming years until the next reassessment is necessary. [13] These Operating Plans offer guidelines to keep the forward movement of completing Action Plan goals within those years. The 2008 Action plan also summarized the progress of the 2001 Action Plan up until that point. Although the goal of reducing the size of the hypoxia area to 5000 square kilometers was not met, the loadings of nitrogen from the Mississippi River were decreased by 12%. [13]

Upper Mississippi River Initiatives

Upper Mississippi River Forestry Partnership

The USDA Forest Service and Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry and other local state foresters have created a partnership to demonstrate forestry's role in restoring the Upper Mississippi River Watershed. Forests are critical in protecting the surrounding watershed and the water quality. Nearly all of the prairies and 70% of the forests in the Upper Mississippi Watershed have been converted to land for agricultural and urban use. The mismanagement has had major effects on fish, wildlife and their habitat, local water supplies, and contributes to nitrogen loading in the Gulf of Mexico. [14]

The Upper Mississippi Watershed Forestry Partnership came up with a 2004-2008 Action Plan proposing to use forests and trees to lessen the impact of the altered landscapes of the Mississippi River watershed. Due to the existing damage and the cost of technological solutions, they suggest to use ecosystem services of woodlands and forest habitats to filter nutrients which helps maintain or improve water quality. They suggest using incentives to create wetlands and forest buffers between farmland and nearby rivers and streams [14]

Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative

The Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative (MRBI) was developed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in an attempt to improve the health of the Mississippi River Basin. The Initiative has selected watersheds to improve in 12 states including Arkansas, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. South Dakota was added later[ when? ]. The MRBI built upon past efforts of producers, NRCS, partners, and State and federal agencies in this area. By dedicating $80 million per year from 2010 to 2013, the Initiative introduced local producers in the Mississippi River Watershed to conservation practices to control nutrient runoff from agricultural land. [15] These practices helped to reduce nutrient loadings downstream, improve water quality, and restore habitats while maintaining agricultural productivity. Each state selected three area watersheds that the MRBI focused on. The selection was based on the future growth of the site depending on current water quality data, existing strategies to reduce nutrient discharge, and existing models of nitrogen and phosphorus in the watershed. Special consideration were given to watersheds that had the largest impact on managing nutrients. [15]

Approved MRBI Conservation Practices

The selected watersheds have to implement a system of practices that address nitrogen and phosphorus generation. MRBI approved practices help avoid, trap, and control nutrients from agricultural runoff. Multiple core and supporting conservation practices provide options for producers depending on their location and existing operations. Approved core practices were selected based on what proved to be most important in reducing the downstream loading of nutrients. Core practices include planting cover crops, constructing grassed waterways or riparian forest buffers, and wetland creation or enhancement. The NRCS allowed State Conservationists to choose supporting practices that address the primary water concerns that have developed within that particular state. Supporting practices include pasture and hayland planting, deep tillage in fields, field borders, and constructing a water and sediment control basin. Payment is received as the implementation of core and supporting practices proceed in a selected watershed.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fertilizer</span> Substance added to soils to supply plant nutrients for a better growth

A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced. For most modern agricultural practices, fertilization focuses on three main macro nutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) with occasional addition of supplements like rock flour for micronutrients. Farmers apply these fertilizers in a variety of ways: through dry or pelletized or liquid application processes, using large agricultural equipment or hand-tool methods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eutrophication</span> Excessive plant growth in water

Eutrophication is a general term describing a process in which nutrients accumulate in a body of water, resulting in an increased growth of microorganisms that may deplete the water of oxygen. Although eutrophication is a natural process, manmade or cultural eutrophication is far more common and is a rapid process caused by a variety of polluting inputs including poorly treated sewage, industrial wastewater, and fertilizer runoff. Such nutrient pollution usually causes algal blooms and bacterial growth, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water and causing substantial environmental degradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution</span> Contamination of water bodies

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources: sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution is either surface water pollution or groundwater pollution. This form of pollution can lead to many problems, such as the degradation of aquatic ecosystems or spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Another problem is that water pollution reduces the ecosystem services that the water resource would otherwise provide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dead zone (ecology)</span> Low-oxygen areas in coastal zones and lakes caused by eutrophication

Dead zones are hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in the world's oceans and large lakes. Hypoxia occurs when dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration falls to or below 2 mg of O2/liter. When a body of water experiences hypoxic conditions, aquatic flora and fauna begin to change behavior in order to reach sections of water with higher oxygen levels. Once DO declines below 0.5 ml O2/liter in a body of water, mass mortality occurs. With such a low concentration of DO, these bodies of water fail to support the aquatic life living there. Historically, many of these sites were naturally occurring. However, in the 1970s, oceanographers began noting increased instances and expanses of dead zones. These occur near inhabited coastlines, where aquatic life is most concentrated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural wastewater treatment</span> Farm management for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and surface runoff

Agricultural wastewater treatment is a farm management agenda for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and from surface runoff that may be contaminated by chemicals in fertilizer, pesticides, animal slurry, crop residues or irrigation water. Agricultural wastewater treatment is required for continuous confined animal operations like milk and egg production. It may be performed in plants using mechanized treatment units similar to those used for industrial wastewater. Where land is available for ponds, settling basins and facultative lagoons may have lower operational costs for seasonal use conditions from breeding or harvest cycles. Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Santa Lucía River</span>

The Santa Lucía River is a river in Uruguay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Apopka</span> Lake in the state of Florida, United States

Lake Apopka is the fourth largest lake in the U.S. state of Florida. It is located 15 miles (24 km) northwest of Orlando, mostly within the bounds of Orange County, although the western part is in Lake County. Fed by a natural spring, rainfall and stormwater runoff, water from Lake Apopka flows through the Apopka-Beauclair Canal and into Lakes Beauclair and Dora. From Lake Dora, water flows into Lake Eustis, then into Lake Griffin and then northward into the Ocklawaha River, which flows into the St. Johns River. Multiple parks or nature trails are present around the lake including Magnolia Park, Lake Apopka Wildlife Drive, Ferndale Preserve, Oakland Nature Preserve, Dr. Bradford Memorial Park, and Newton Park, named for A. B. Newton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonpoint source pollution</span> Pollution resulting from multiple sources

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination of water or air that does not originate from a single discrete source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. It is in contrast to point source pollution which results from a single source. Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage, or hydrological modification where tracing pollution back to a single source is difficult. Nonpoint source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source air pollution affects air quality, from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a nonpoint source of pollution; if the discharges were to occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location, the pollution would be single-point.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Upper Mississippi River</span> Upstream portion of the Mississippi river

The Upper Mississippi River is today the portion of the Mississippi River upstream of St. Louis, Missouri, United States, at the confluence of its main tributary, the Missouri River. Historically, it may refer to the area above the Arkansas Post, above the confluence of Ohio River, or above Cape Girardeau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DSSAM Model</span> Water quality computer simulation

The DSSAM Model is a computer simulation developed for the Truckee River to analyze water quality impacts from land use and wastewater management decisions in the Truckee River Basin. This area includes the cities of Reno and Sparks, Nevada as well as the Lake Tahoe Basin. The model is historically and alternatively called the Earth Metrics Truckee River Model. Since original development in 1984-1986 under contract to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the model has been refined and successive versions have been dubbed DSSAM II and DSSAM III. This hydrology transport model is based upon a pollutant loading metric called Total maximum daily load (TMDL). The success of this flagship model contributed to the Agency's broadened commitment to the use of the underlying TMDL protocol in its national policy for management of most river systems in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trophic state index</span> Measure of the ability of water to sustain biological productivity

The Trophic State Index (TSI) is a classification system designed to rate water bodies based on the amount of biological productivity they sustain. Although the term "trophic index" is commonly applied to lakes, any surface water body may be indexed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leaching (agriculture)</span> Loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from soil due to rain and irrigation

In agriculture, leaching is the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and irrigation. Soil structure, crop planting, type and application rates of fertilizers, and other factors are taken into account to avoid excessive nutrient loss. Leaching may also refer to the practice of applying a small amount of excess irrigation where the water has a high salt content to avoid salts from building up in the soil. Where this is practiced, drainage must also usually be employed, to carry away the excess water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban runoff</span> Surface runoff of water caused by urbanization

Urban runoff is surface runoff of rainwater, landscape irrigation, and car washing created by urbanization. Impervious surfaces are constructed during land development. During rain, storms, and other precipitation events, these surfaces, along with rooftops, carry polluted stormwater to storm drains, instead of allowing the water to percolate through soil. This causes lowering of the water table and flooding since the amount of water that remains on the surface is greater. Most municipal storm sewer systems discharge untreated stormwater to streams, rivers, and bays. This excess water can also make its way into people's properties through basement backups and seepage through building wall and floors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural pollution</span> Type of pollution caused by agriculture

Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of sources, ranging from point source water pollution to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as non-point source pollution and air pollution. Once in the environment these pollutants can have both direct effects in surrounding ecosystems, i.e. killing local wildlife or contaminating drinking water, and downstream effects such as dead zones caused by agricultural runoff is concentrated in large water bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrient pollution</span> Contamination of water by excessive inputs of nutrients

Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algal growth. Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures, discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from combustion. Raw sewage is a large contributor to cultural eutrophication since sewage is high in nutrients. Releasing raw sewage into a large water body is referred to as sewage dumping, and still occurs all over the world. Excess reactive nitrogen compounds in the environment are associated with many large-scale environmental concerns. These include eutrophication of surface waters, harmful algal blooms, hypoxia, acid rain, nitrogen saturation in forests, and climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Filter strip</span>

Filter strips, also referred to as buffer strips, are small, edge-of-field tracts of vegetated land that are used to reduce the contamination of surface water. They are primarily used in agriculture to control non-point source pollution, however, they may also be used to reduce sediment in storm water runoff from construction sites. There are several types of filter strips including vegetative filter strips, forested riparian buffers, and wind buffers. In agriculture, they are highly effective in reducing the concentration of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in runoff into surface water and are also effective in reducing sediment erosion and removing pesticides. This helps to prevent eutrophication and associated fishkills and loss of biodiversity. The use of filter strips is very common in developed countries and is required by law in some areas. The implementation and maintenance of filter strips is inexpensive and their use has been shown to be cost effective.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypoxia (environmental)</span> Low oxygen conditions or levels

Hypoxia refers to low oxygen conditions. For air-breathing organisms, hypoxia is problematic but for many anaerobic organisms, hypoxia is essential. Hypoxia applies to many situations, but usually refers to the atmosphere and natural waters.

The increase in pollution of the Mississippi River has greatly affected the species that live in the water, as well as those who rely on the river for food and recreational purposes. One of the main types of pollution is an excess of nitrate caused by chemical wastes from power plants and agricultural runoffs. The watershed covers about 40% of the lower 48 states, with 7 of the 10 top agricultural producing states being within this watershed.

Nutrient cycling in the Columbia River Basin involves the transport of nutrients through the system, as well as transformations from among dissolved, solid, and gaseous phases, depending on the element. The elements that constitute important nutrient cycles include macronutrients such as nitrogen, silicate, phosphorus, and micronutrients, which are found in trace amounts, such as iron. Their cycling within a system is controlled by many biological, chemical, and physical processes.

David J. Mulla is an American soil scientist. He played an role in the organization of the International Conference on Precision Agriculture (ICPA), which started as a small workshop in Minneapolis in the early 1990s and developed into the International Society of Precision Agriculture (ISPA). Until 2008, the meetings of the ICPA were hosted by the University of Minnesota. In 2013, he published a review of advances in remote sensing for precision agriculture.

References

  1. ↑ Mississippi River Facts, www.nps.gov, July 10, 2009, accessed October 27, 2009.
  2. ↑ Donner, Simon d. and Kucharik, Christopher K. (2008). "Corn-Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (11): 4513–518. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.4513D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708300105 . JSTOR   25461448. PMC   2393748 . PMID   18332435.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ↑ Blesh, J. and Drinkwater, L.E. (2013). "The Impact of Nitrogen Source and Crop Rotation on Nitrogen Mass Balances in the Mississippi River Basin". Ecological Applications. 23 (5): 1017–035. doi:10.1890/12-0132.1. JSTOR   23441603. PMID   23967572.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ Keeney, Dennis R. (2002). "Reducing the Nonpoint Nitrogen to Acceptable Levels with Emphasis on the Upper Mississippi River Basin". Estuaries. 25 (4): 862–68. doi:10.1007/BF02804911. JSTOR   1353038. S2CID   83703910.
  5. ↑ Vanloocke, Andy; Twine, Tracy E.; Kucharik, Christopher J.; Bernacchi, Carl J. (2017). "Assessing the potential to decrease the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone with Midwest US perennial cellulosic feedstock production". GCB Bioenergy. 9 (5): 858–875. doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12385 .
  6. ↑ Rabotyagov, Sergey; Campbell, Todd; Jha, Manoj; Gassman, Philip W.; Arnold, Jeffrey; Kurkalova, Lyubov; Secchi, Silvia; Feng, Hongli; Kling, Catherine L. (2010). "Least-cost control of agricultural nutrient contributions to the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone". Ecological Applications. 20 (6): 1542–1555. doi:10.1890/08-0680.1. JSTOR   25741325. PMID   20945758.
  7. 1 2 "Nutrient Pollution, The Problem". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 10 March 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  8. ↑ "The Facts about Nutrient Pollution" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  9. ↑ "The Facts about Nutrient Pollution" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  10. ↑ "The Facts about Nutrient Pollution" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
  11. ↑ Hypoxia 101, www.epa.gov, accessed October 27, 2009.
  12. 1 2 2001 Action Plan, www.epa.gov, accessed October 27, 2009.
  13. 1 2 2008 Action Plan, www.epa.gov, accessed November 1, 2009.
  14. 1 2 Northeastern Area and Midwest State Foresters (June 2004). "Upper Mississippi Watershed Partnership Action Plan" (PDF). USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry. p. 10. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
  15. 1 2 Natural Resources Conservation Service. "Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative" (PDF). USDA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-08-16. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.