Naga people (Lanka)

Last updated

Seerani amman.jpg
Cobra symbolism in a Sri Lankan Hindu statue of the Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple
Dambulla 06.jpg
According to Buddhist scripture the Naga king Muchalinda shielded the Buddha from getting wet in the rain by coiling round him and holding his large hood above the Buddha's head. [1]

The Naga people are believed by some to be an ancient tribe who once inhabited Sri Lanka and various parts of Southern India.There are references to Nagas in several ancient texts such as Mahavamsa, Manimekala. Naga people are ancient Tamil tribe.They were generally represented as a class of super-humans taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. [2] [note 1]

Contents

Certain places such as Nagadeepa in Jaffna and Kalyani in Gampaha are mentioned as their abodes. [3] The names of some Naga kings in Sri Lankan Ancient Tamil legend and the cult of Naga prevailed in India up to medieval times. [4]

The Jaffna Peninsula was mentioned in Tamil literature as Naka Nadu, in Pali literature as Nagadeepa and in Greek gazetteer as Nagadiba. [5] [6] [7] [8] The name Nagabhumi was also found on a Brahmi-inscribed coin from Uduthurai, Jaffna and in a Tamil inscription from Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu referring to the Jaffna peninsula. [9] Naga workship Tradition still followed in Tamil Nadu.

Etymology

The word "Naga" literally means "snake" or "serpent" in Sanskrit, Pali, Sinhala & Tamil language.

Origin

According to Manogaran, some scholars also "have postulated that the Yakshas and Nagas [...] are the aboriginal tribes of Sri Lanka". [10] Scholars like K. Indrapala regard them as an ancient tribe who started to assimilate to Tamil culture and language from the 3rd century BCE. [11] [a] According to him, in the end of the 9th century or probably very long before that time, the Nagas assimilated into the two major ethnic groups of the island.

According to V. Kanakasabhai, The Oliyar, Parathavar, Maravar, Paraiyar, [14] Kallar, Palli [15] and Eyinar who were widespread across South India and North-East Sri Lanka are all Naga tribes. [16] According to several authors they may have been a Dravidian tribe. [17] [10] Many Tamil poets who contributed to the Sangam literature attached Naga prefixes and suffixes to their names to indicate their Naga descent. [18] [13]

Early references

Buddha's visit to Nagadeepa. Detail from Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara 082 Buddha and the Naga Throne (20256361649).jpg
Buddha's visit to Nagadeepa. Detail from Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara

Mahavamsa

The chronicle states that the Buddha, during his second visit to the island, pacified a dispute between two Naga Kings of Nagadeepa, Chulodara and Mahodara over the possession of a gem-studded throne. This throne was finally offered to the Buddha by the grateful Naga kings who left it in Nagadeepa under a Rajayathana tree (Kiri Palu) as an object of worship. [19] Since then the place became one of the holiest shrines of Buddhists in the island for many centuries. The references to Nagadeepa in Mahawamsa as well as other Pali writings, coupled with archaeological and epigraphical evidences, have established that Nagadeepa of the Mahawamsa is the present Jaffna Peninsula. [20] [21] [22]

The chronicle further states that in the eighth year after the Enlightenment, the Buddha visited the island for the third time, on an invitation of Maniakkhita, the Naga king of Kalyani (Modern day Kelaniya) who is the uncle of the Naga king of Nagadeepa. [23]

Manimekalai

In the Tamil epic Manimekalai, the heroine is miraculously transported to a small island called Manipallavam where there was a seat or foot stool associated to the Buddha. The seat in Manipallavam is said to have been used by the Buddha when he preached and reconciled the two kings of Naga land, and that it was placed in Manipallavam by the king of gods, Indra. [note 2] [24] The legend speaks of the great Naga king Valai Vanan and his queen Vasamayilai who ruled over Manipallavam in the Jaffna Peninsula. Their daughter, the princess Pilli Valai had a liaison at the islet with the early Chola king Killivalavan ; out of this union was the prince Tondai Eelam Thiraiyar born, who historians note was the early progenitor of the Pallava Dynasty. [25] [26] [27] He went on to rule Tondai Nadu from Kanchipuram. Nainativu was referred to as Manipallavam in ancient Tamil literature following this union. Royals of the Chola-Naga lineage would go on to rule other territory of the island, Nagapattinam and Tondai Nadu of Tamilakam. [28]

By the time Buddhism had reached Tamilakam, the twin epics of ancient Tamil Nadu Silappatikaram (5–6th century CE) and Manimekalai (6th century CE) were written, speaking of Naga Nadu across the sea from Kaveripoompuharpattinam. [29] The island according to the Tamil epic was divided into two territory, Naga Nadu and Ilankaitheevam. [30] Naga Nadu, or the whole island was also known as Cherantheevu, derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning Naga) and theevu (meaning island). [31]

Identifying Manipallavam

The similarity of the legend about the Buddha's seat given in the Mahavamsa to that in the Manimekalai has led certain scholars to identify the Manipallavam with Nagadeepa (currently Nainativu), which has caused the history to be extracted out of the legend. [3] [note 3]

Cīttalai Cāttanār, the author of the Manimekalai, reflected the perception at the time that Naga Nadu was an autonomous administrative entity, kingdom or nadu stretching across coastal districts, distinguished from the rest of the island also ruled intermittently by Naga kings. [32]

The Naga king Valai Vanan was stated in the Manimekalai to be the king of Naga Nadu, one of the two territories in Sri Lanka, the other being Ilankaitheevam. [30] Several scholars identify Naga Nadu with the Jaffna Peninsula, and Manipallavam with Nainativu. [33] [34] [35] Other scholars identify Karaitivu as Manipallavam. [36]

Senarath Paranavithana rejects the identification of Manipallavam with Nainativu and the Jaffna Peninsula, because Manimekalai states the island to have been uninhabited, whereas the Jaffna Peninsula have been inhabited centuries before the date of the epic. [37] [note 4] He also notes that Manimekalai does not mention that the two Naga kings had their abode in Manipallavam as stated in the Mahavamsa, nor did it mention that the holy seat was placed there by Gautama Buddha, but by Indra. [note 5] Further states Canto IX, II. 13–22 that an earthquake destroyed a city in Gandhara which in turn affteced 100 yojanas of Naga Nadu, thus rejecting the identification of Naga Nadu with Jaffna Peninsula. [37]

Ramayana

In the Indian epic Ramayana, the mythological island Lanka has been often identified with Sri Lanka. The inhabitants of Lanka were mentioned as non-humans, mainly referring to the Rakshasas and Yakshas, but also mentioning the Nagas. [10] Indrajit, the son of Ravana was married to Sulochana, a Naga princess. [38]

Others

Ptolemy in his 1st century map of Taprobane mentions Nagadibois. [8] Ptolemy mentions in 150 CE that King Sornagos, a descendant of this lineage, ruled from the early Chola capital of Uraiyur during this time. [39]

Culture

Irrigation

It is also believed they were great irrigation engineers who built water storages. The Giant's Tank dam and reservoir system in Mannar, Sri Lanka is considered by some (such as Author, Mudaliyar C. Rajanayagam) to have been built by the Nagas based on the extensive ruins and the presence of villages with surrounding the port with Naga name (e.g. Nagarkulam, Nagathazhvu and Sirunagarkulam). [40] [ failed verification ]

Snake worship

Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus since ancient times have regarded the cobra as a divine being by the passing down of Naga traditions and beliefs. Further, a cobra can be found entwining itself round the neck of the Hindu god Shiva as the serpent-king Vasuki. Cobras can also be found in images of god Vishnu. [1] [17]

Religion

There is substantial evidence to say that Nagas were Buddhist followers after the 4th century B.C. One such example is Buddha's second visit Sri Lanka mentioned in both the Manimekalai and Mahavamsa. [41]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Kathiragesu Indrapala writes that "In the traditions preserved in the early Sri Lankan chronicles as well as in the early Tamil literary works the Nagas appear as a distinct group". [12] He further writes that "the adoption of the Tamil language was helping the Nagas in the Tamil chiefdoms to be assimilated into the major ethnic group there". [13]
  1. ↑ In the Mahavamsa as indeed in the ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature in general, the Nagas are never represented as human beings, but as a class of superhuman beings, who inhabited a subterranean world.
  2. ↑ Manimekalai, V. Saminatha Aiyar, Cantos X-XII, Madras (1921)
  3. ↑ The similarity of the legend of the holy seat given in the Mahawamsa to that in the Manimekalai has led certain scholars to identify Manipallavam with Nagadeepa, and as the former refers to the two kings as having their habitat in the Nagadeepa, the Nakanatu (the Naga land), wherever it is mentioned, has been taken as referring to the Jaffna peninsula. Continuing this method of extracting history out of the legend, a Naga damsel who is said in the Manimekalai to have appeared in a garden near Pukar, remained for sometime with a legendary Cola king and disappeared after conceiving a child, is taken to have been a princess form Jaffna and father an ancient ruler of Jaffna
  4. ↑ Anku valvor yavarum inmaiyin, Canto XIV, I.86
  5. ↑ Tevar-kon itta mamanippilikai, Canto VIII, I.52

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trincomalee</span> City in Sri Lanka

Trincomalee, historically known as Gokanna and Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee District and major resort port city of Eastern Province, Sri Lanka. Located on the east coast of the island overlooking the Trincomalee Harbour, Trincomalee has been one of the main centres of Sri Lankan Tamil speaking culture on the island for nearly a millennium. With a population of 99,135, the city is built on a peninsula of the same name, which divides its inner and outer harbours. It is home to the famous Koneswaram temple from where it developed and earned its historic Tamil name Thirukonamalai. The town is home to other historical monuments such as the Bhadrakali Amman Temple, Trincomalee, the Trincomalee Hindu Cultural Hall and, opened in 1897, the Trincomalee Hindu College. Trincomalee is also the site of the Trincomalee railway station and an ancient ferry service to Jaffna and the south side of the harbour at Muttur.

<i>Mahāvaṃsa</i> Historical chronicle of Sri Lanka

Mahāvaṃsa is the meticulously kept historical chronicle of Sri Lanka until the period of Mahasena of Anuradhapura. It was written in the style of an epic poem written in the Pali language. It relates the history of Sri Lanka from its legendary beginnings up to the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura covering the period between the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE to his reign and later updated by different writers. It was first composed by a Buddhist monk named Mahanama at the Mahavihara temple in Anuradhapura in the 5th or 6th-century CE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Koneswaram Temple</span> Hindu temple in Sri Lanka

Koneswaram Temple of Trincomalee or Thirukonamalai Konesar Temple – The Temple of the Thousand Pillars and Dakshina-Then Kailasam is a classical-medieval Hindu temple complex in Trincomalee, a Hindu religious pilgrimage centre in Eastern Province, Sri Lanka. The most sacred of the Pancha Ishwarams of Sri Lanka, it was built significantly during the ancient period on top of Konesar Malai, a promontory overlooking Trincomalee District, Gokarna bay and the Indian Ocean. The monument contains its main shrine to Shiva in the form Kona-Ishvara, shortened to Konesar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sri Lankan Tamils</span> South Asian ethnic group

Sri Lankan Tamils, also known as Ceylon Tamils or Eelam Tamils, are Tamils native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka. Today, they constitute a majority in the Northern Province, form the plurality in the Eastern Province and are in the minority throughout the rest of the country. 70% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamilakam</span> Geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people

Tamilakam was the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Lakshadweep and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Traditional accounts and the Tolkāppiyam referred to these territories as a single cultural area, where Tamil was the natural language and permeated the culture of all its inhabitants. The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them were the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyans and Pallavas. During the Sangam period, Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. Ancient Tamil settlements were also established in Sri Lanka and the Maldives (Giravarus), prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ellalan</span> King of Anuradhapura from 205 BCE to 161 BCE

Ellalan, also referred to as Elara the Pious, and by the honorific epithet Manu Needhi Cholan, was a member of the Tamil Chola dynasty in Southern India, who upon capturing the throne became king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, in present-day Sri Lanka, from 205 BCE to 161 BCE.

Vallipuram is a village in Vadamarachchi, near Point Pedro in Northern Province, Sri Lanka. The village is an ancient settlement with rich archeological remains. The village is home to the Vishnu temple Vallipuram Aalvar Kovil.

Thunnalai is a village in Vadamarachchi South-West, Jaffna District, Northern Province, Sri Lanka. It is located near Thondaman Aru lagoon. It is also in close proximity to Vallipuram. Naga names are found in India. Nagpur, Nagar Kovil, Nagapatnam and Nagaland are examples. Nair, nayakkar, naidu are remnants of Naga heritage. Tamils are a linguistic name; but Nagas are more of a racially based line. Nagas are now integral part of all linguistic tribes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jaffna Peninsula</span> Region of Northern Province, Sri Lanka

The Jaffna Peninsula is a region in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It is home to the capital city of the province, Jaffna, and comprises much of the former land mass of the medieval Jaffna Kingdom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nainativu</span> Island in Sri Lanka

Nainativu, is a small but notable island off the coast of Jaffna Peninsula in the Northern Province, Sri Lanka. The name of the island alludes to the folklore inhabitants, the Naga people. It is home to the Hindu shrine of Nagapooshani Amman Temple; one of the prominent 64 Shakti Peethas, and the Buddhist shrine Nagadeepa Purana Viharaya.

Thiriyai is a small village in the eastern Trincomalee District of Sri Lanka. It is situated about 25 miles north of Trincomalee town through Nilaveli. The total population of the village is 640 at the 2012 census.

Kandarodai is a small hamlet and archaeological site of Chunnakam town, a suburb in Jaffna District, Sri Lanka. The notable ancient Buddhist monastery referred to as Kadurugoda Vihara is situated in Kandarodai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anuradhapura period</span> Period in the history of Sri Lanka during the Anuradhapura Kingdom (377 BC-1017 AD)

The Anuradhapura period was a period in the history of Sri Lanka of the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 377 BCE to 1017 CE. The period begins when Pandukabhaya, King of Upatissa Nuwara moved the administration to Anuradhapura, becoming the kingdom's first monarch. Anuradhapura is heralded as an ancient cosmopolitan citadel with diverse populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buddhism amongst Tamils</span>

Buddhism amongst the Tamils was historically found in the Tamilakam region of India and Sri Lanka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nagadeepa Purana Vihara</span>

Nagadeepa Purana Vihara is an ancient Buddhist temple situated in Jaffna district of Northern Province, Sri Lanka. It is among the country's sixteen holiest Buddhist shrines (Solosmasthana). According to contemporary history, the Gautama Buddha visited the site after five years of attaining Enlightenment to settle the dispute between two warring Naga kings, Chulodara and Mahodara.

When to date the start of the history of the Jaffna kingdom is debated among historians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple</span> Hindu temple in Northern, Sri Lanka

Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple [Tamil: நயினாதீவு நாகபூசணி அம்மன் கோயில், romanized: Nayiṉātīvu Nākapūcaṇi Am'maṉ Kōyil - Meaning: Nainativu ; Nagapooshani ; Amman (Goddess)] is an ancient and historic Hindu temple located amidst the Palk Strait on the island of Nainativu, Sri Lanka. It is dedicated to Parvati who is known as Nagapooshani or Bhuvaneswari and her consort, Shiva who is named here as Nayinaar. The temple seems to have been mentioned in the Brahmanda Purana. The temple complex houses four gopurams ranging from 20–25 feet in height, to the tallest being the eastern Raja Raja Gopuram soaring at 108 feet high. The temple is a significant symbol for the Tamil people, and has been mentioned since antiquity in Tamil literature, such as Manimekalai and Kundalakesi. The present structure was built during 1720 to 1790 after the ancient structure was destroyed by the Portuguese in 1620. The temple attracts around 1000 visitors a day, and approximately 5000 visitors during festivals. The annual 16-day Mahostavam (Thiruvizha) festival celebrated during the Tamil month of Aani (June/July) - attracts over 100,000 pilgrims. There is an estimated 10,000 sculptures in this newly renovated temple.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-Anuradhapura period</span> Period in Sri Lankan history

The Pre-Anuradhapura period of Sri Lankan history begins with the gradual onset of historical records in the final centuries of the prehistoric period and ending in 437 BC. According to the Mahavamsa, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and northern Naga tribes. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BC at the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who was banished from the Indian subcontinent with his 700 followers and is recorded in the Mahavamsa chronicle. This period was succeeded by the Anuradhapura period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Kadurugoda Viharaya</span>

Ancient Kantharodai Historical Site with some remains of Stupas is situated in Kandarodai village in Chunnakam, Sri Lanka. The temple is considered one of the ancient Buddhist remains in existence today in Jaffna Peninsula.

References

  1. 1 2 Godwin Witane . (2003). The growth of the cobra cult in Sri Lanka kuhanjith and indrajith ruled kingdoms of srilanka. Available: "Online edition of Sunday Observer - Business". Archived from the original on 8 October 2003. Retrieved 9 May 2016.. Last accessed 7 March 2010.
  2. ↑ Senarath Paranavitana (1961). Journal of the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic society# The Arya Kingdom in North Ceylon. Vol. VII, part II. Colombo apothecaries Co. Ltd. p. 181.
  3. 1 2 JCBRAS, S. Paranavitana 1961, p. 181.
  4. ↑ B.Ch.Chhabra, ed. (1950). Epigraphia Indica. Vol. XXVIII Part VI. pp. 330–334.
  5. ↑ Nicholas, C.W. (1963). Historical topography of ancient and medieval Ceylon. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series (Vol VI). p. 10. Other obvious identifications are Nagadiba with Nagadipa or Nakadiva (the Jaffna peninsula) and Rhogandanoi with the inhabitants of Rohana (Ruhuna).
  6. ↑ "Claudius Ptolemy's Sri Lankan Map". Archaeology.lk. 2 November 2020.
  7. ↑ Intirapālā, Kārttikēcu (2005). The evolution of an ethnic identity: the Tamils in Sri Lanka c. 300 BCE to c. 1200 CE. M.V. Publications for the South Asian Studies Centre, Sydney. p. 172. ISBN   9780646425467.
  8. 1 2 Rajeswaran, S. T. B. (2012). Geographical Aspects of the Northern Province, Sri Lanka. University of Jaffna: Governor's Office, Department of Geography. p. 61.
  9. ↑ K. Rajan - Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections (2008) p.56-57
  10. 1 2 3 Manogaran 1987, p. 21.
  11. ↑ Indrapala 2005, p. 172,174.
  12. ↑ Indrapala 2005, p. 173.
  13. 1 2 Indrapala 2005, p. 174.
  14. ↑ "Castes and tribes of Southern Indian".
  15. ↑ Aiyangar, Muttusvami Srinivasa (1914). Tamil Studies. Guardian Press. p. 69.
  16. ↑ Kanakasabhai, V. (1904). The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. Asian Educational Services. ISBN   9788120601505.
  17. 1 2 Laura Smid (2003). South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Great Britain: Routledge. 429.
  18. ↑ Pillay, Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi (1963). South India and Ceylon. University of Madras. p. 37.
  19. ↑ Geiger, W. (1950). Mahawamsa, Chapter 1, vv. 44–70 (English translation). pp. 5–8.
  20. ↑ C.W. Nicholas (1963). Journal of the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic society#Historical Topography of Ancient and Medieval Ceylon. Vol. VI, Special number. p. 83.
  21. ↑ Paul E. Pieris (1917). Journal of the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic society# Nagadipa and Buddhist Remains in Jaffna (Part I). Vol. XXVI (no.70). pp. 11–30.
  22. ↑ Paul E. Pieris (1919). Journal of the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic society# Nagadipa and Buddhist Remains in Jaffna (Part II). Vol. XXVIII (no.72). pp. 40–60.
  23. ↑ JCBRAS, C.W. Nicholas 1963, p. 119.
  24. ↑ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar (1928). Manimekalai in its Historical Setting. London. p. 129.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ↑ Ordhendra Coomar Gangoly. The art of the Pallavas, Volume 2 of Indian Sculpture Series. G. Wittenborn, 1957. p. 2.
  26. ↑ Schalk, Peter; Veluppillai, A.; Nākacāmi, Irāmaccantiran̲ (2002). Buddhism among Tamils in pre-colonial Tamilakam and Īlam: Prologue. The Pre-Pallava and the Pallava period. Almqvist & Wiksell. p. 148. ISBN   9789155453572.
  27. ↑ C. Rasanayagam (1926). Ancient Jaffna. Madras. pp. 26–28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ↑ Rao, Conjeeveram Hayavadana; Rice, Benjamin Lewis (1930). Mysore Gazetteer. Government Press. p. 519. chola manipallavam.
  29. ↑ Cāttan̲ār; Kōpālayyar, Ti Vē (1 January 1989). Manimekhalai: The Dancer with the Magic Bowl. New Directions Publishing. ISBN   9780811210980.
  30. 1 2 Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies. 1991. p. 31.
  31. ↑ Gunasegaram, Samuel Jeyanayagam (1985). Selected writings. Wim Gunasegaram. p. 33.
  32. ↑ Samuel, G. John; Śivagaṇēśamūrti, Ār Es; Nagarajan, M. S. (1998). Buddhism in Tamil Nadu: Collected Papers. Institute of Asian Studies. p. 45.
  33. ↑ Spolia Zeylanica. National Museums of Sri Lanka. 1955. p. 176.
  34. ↑ Kantacāmi, Cō Na (1978). Buddhism as Expounded in Manimekalai. Annamalai University. p. 113.
  35. ↑ Annals of Oriental Research. University of Madras. 1957. p. 9.
  36. ↑ Rao, Tangsal Narayana Vasudeva (1979). Buddhism in the Tamil Country. Annamalai University. p. 156.
  37. 1 2 JCBRAS, S. Paranavitana 1961, p. 182.
  38. ↑ Saklani, Dinesh Prasad (2006). Rāmāyaṇa tradition in historical perspective. Pratibha Prakashan. ISBN   9788177021295.
  39. ↑ Chattopadhyaya, Sudhakar (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea & Ptolemy on Ancient Geography of India. Prajñā. p. 103.
  40. ↑ Lionel Wijesiri . (2009). The giant wakes up Revival of Yoda Wewa . http://www.dailynews.lk/2009/10/20/fea21.asp. Last accessed 7 March 2010.
  41. ↑ Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Mahāvaṃsa". Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 Sep. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mahavamsa . Accessed 26 January 2021.

Bibliography

  • Manogaran, Chelvadurai (1987), Ethnic conflict and reconciliation in Sri Lanka, University of Hawaii Press
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.