New 36th Division

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New 36th Division
Active1932–1937
CountryFlag of the Republic of China.svg  Republic of China
Branch Flag of the Republic of China Army.svg National Revolutionary Army
TypeCavalry (later Infantry)
Garrison/HQ Xinjiang, later Yunnan
Engagements
Commanders
Ceremonial chief Ma Zhongying, Ma Hushan
Notable
commanders		 Ma Zhongying, Ma Hushan, Ma Zhancang, Ma Fuyuan. Post reorganisation: Li Chih-peng
New 36th Division
Traditional Chinese 新編第三十六師
Simplified Chinese 新编第三十六师

Xinjiang War

Kizil massacre

Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers from Kashgar.

Battle of Aksu

A minor battle in which Chinese Muslim troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uyghurs when they rose up in revolt. [17]

Battle of Sekes Tash

A minor battle when Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang attacked and inflicted a defeat upon Uyghur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 Uyghur and Kirghiz were killed. [18]

Battle of Kashgar (1933)

Uyghur and Kirghiz forces led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay attempted to take the city of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated.

Han Chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the new 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. [19]

Battle of Urumqi

The new 36th division twice (First Battle of Urumqi and Second Battle of Urumqi) attempted to take the city of Urumqi, the second time, they were joined by a Han Chinese army under Zhang Peiyuan.

Battle of Tutung

In 1934, 2 brigades of Soviet Gosudarstvennoye Politicheskoye Upravlenie (GPU) troops of about 7,000 backed by tanks, planes, and artillery with mustard gas, attacked the new 36th division near Tutung. The battle raged for several weeks on the Tutung frozen river. New 36th division troops dressed up in sheepskins in the snow, and charged Soviet machine gun posts with swords to defeat a Soviet pincer attack. Soviet planes bombed the 36th division with mustard gas. Heavy casualties mounted on both sides before Ma Zhongying ordered the 36th division to withdraw. [20] [21]

Battle of Dawan Cheng

Ma Zhongying encountered a Soviet armored car column of a few hundred soldiers near Dawan Cheng. The new 36th division wiped out nearly the entire column, after engaging the Soviet in savage hand-to-hand combat, and rolled the wrecked Soviet armored cars off the mountainsides. When a White Russian force showed up, Ma Zhongying withdrew. [20] [22] [23]

Battle of Kashgar (1934)

New 36th division General Ma Fuyuan stormed Kashgar, and attacked the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another new 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped by the Uighurs and Kirghiz. Ma Zhancang repulsed six Uighur attacks, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. [24] 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians were killed, in revenge for the Kizil massacre. General Ma Zhongying gave a speech at Idgah mosque, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division. [25] [26] [27] [28]

Battle of Yangi Hissar

Ma Zhancang led the new 36th division to attack Uyghur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. [29]

Battle of Yarkand

Ma Zhancang defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque. [30]

Charkhlik Revolt

The new 36th division under General Ma Hushan crushed a revolt by the Uighurs in the Charkhlik oasis. [31]

Administration of Tunganistan

The new 36th division under General Ma Hushan administered the oases of southern Xinjiang, and their administration was dubbed Tunganistan by Western travelers. Ma Hushan and the new 36th division declared their loyalty to the Kuomintang government in Nanjing and sent emissaries to Nanjing requesting aid to fight against Sheng Shicai's provincial forces and the Soviet Union.

The administration which was set up was colonial in nature, the Chinese Muslims started putting up street signs and names in Chinese, which used to be in only Uighur language. They also sought to live a Chinese lifestyle, importing Chinese cooks and baths. [32] Islam barely played a role except as a "vague spiritual focus" for unified opposition against Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union. [33]

The Uyghurs in the Charklik oases revolted against the new 36th division in 1935, and the Chinese Muslims crushed the Uyghur insurgents, executed 100 people, and took the family of the Uyghur chief as hostages. [34]

Camels were requisitioned by the new 36th Division in Cherchen. [35]

Aftermath

In May 1937, the New 36th Division's acting Division Commander Ma Hushan launched a military operation against Sheng Shicai, which involved laying siege to Kashgar, capturing Bachu, and taking the vanguard approaches to Aksu. Sheng Shicai requested assistance from the Soviets, and in September 1937 three Soviet regiments entered the country from Artush. They defeated Ma Hushan at Bachu, and moved to Kashgar and Yarkand. The New 36th Division retreated to Hotan, and when the Soviet Red Army occupied Pishan in early September, Ma Hushan abandoned his troops and fled to India. Afterwards, the unit had pretty much disintegrated and the division ceased to exist. [36]

Related Research Articles

The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang was a military campaign of the Soviet Union in the Chinese northwestern region of Xinjiang in 1934. White Russian forces assisted the Soviet Red Army.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ma Shaowu</span> Chinese Muslim Warlord

Ma Shaowu was a Hui born in Yunnan, in Qing Dynasty China. He was a member of the Xinjiang clique during the Republic of China.

The Charkhlik revolt was a Uighur uprising in 1935 against Chinese Muslim-dominated Tunganistan, which was administered by the New 36th Division. The Chinese Muslim troops quickly and brutally defeated the Uighur revolt. Over 100 Uighurs were executed. The revolt leader's family were made hostages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdullah Bughra</span> Uyghur military commander (died 1934)

Abdullah Bughra was a Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and older brother of Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar (1934) against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division. The Chinese Muslims were loyal to the Chinese government and wanted to crush the Turkic Muslim Uighurs and Kirghiz in revenge for the Kizil massacre. He also had Afghan bodyguards protecting him. He was killed in 1934 at Yarkand by Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang. All of Abdullah's fighters were killed, but his body was never found, which later gave rise to speculations about his fate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nur Ahmadjan Bughra</span> Uyghur milutary commander (died 1934)

Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar (1934) against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division. The Chinese Muslims were loyal to the Republic of China government and wanted to crush the Turkic Muslim Uighurs and Kirghiz in revenge for the Kizil massacre, in which Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra had taken part. He was killed on April 16, 1934, at Yangi Hissar by Chinese Muslim troops under generals Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan. All of Nur Ahmad Jan's 2,500 Uighur and Kirghiz fighters were exterminated by the 10,000 strong Chinese Muslim army.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timur Beg</span> Uyghur revolutionary (1886–1933)

Timur Beg, also known as Timur Sijan, was a Uighur rebel military leader in Xinjiang in 1933. He was involved in the 1933 Battle of Kashgar and participated before in Turpan Rebellion (1932). He associated with the Turkic nationalist Young Kashgar Party and appointed himself as "Timur Shah". He and other Uighurs like the Bughra brothers wanted to secede from China. In August 1933 his troops were attacked by the Chinese Muslim 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army under General Ma Zhancang. Timur was shot and killed in Kashgar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yulbars Khan</span> Chinese Uyghur chieftain and general

Yulbars Khan, courtesy name Jingfu (景福), was a Uyghur chieftain and Kuomintang general during the Chinese Civil War. He entered the service in the Kumul Khanate of Muhammad Khan of Kumul and later his son Maksud Shah. He served as an advisor at the court, until when Maksud died in March 1930, governor Jin Shuren abolished the khanate. Yulbars then conspired with Khoja Niyaz and Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin in the Kumul Rebellion. According to some people, Ma restrained Yulbars from traveling to Nanking to ask the Kuomintang for help, Ma earlier had an agreement with the Kuomintang that if he seized Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang as its leader.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ma Zhancang</span>

Ma Zhancang (Mazuha)(simplified Chinese: 马占仓; traditional Chinese: 馬占倉; pinyin: Mǎ Zhàncāng; Wade–Giles: Ma Chan-ts'ang, Xiao'erjing: ﻣَﺎ جً ﺿْﺎ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq. He fought against Kirghiz, and Uighur rebels and destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic after defeating Uighur and Kirghiz fighters at Kashgar, the Battle of Yarkand and the Battle of Yangi Hissar in 1934. He killed the Uighur leaders Timur Beg, Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.

In the 1933 Battle of Kashgar, Gen. Ma Zhancang signed a secret agreement with the daotai of Kashgar, Ma Shaowu, and his Chinese Muslim troops joined the Han Chinese garrison inside the yamen in Kashgar and helped them repulse Uighur and Kirghiz attacks led by Abdullah Bughra. Turkic Uighur and Kirghiz forces led by the Uighur Timur Beg had been attacking Chinese Muslim villages and pillaging them. During the fighting Timur Beg was shot and then beheaded by Ma Zhancang's forces, his head being put on display at the Idgah mosque. When more Chinese Muslim troops arrived, they reinforced the Chinese garrison inside Kashgar. Osman Ali, the Kirghiz rebel, attempted to attack the yamen, but was driven back with heavy losses. He then proceeded to loot the city.

Ma Fuyuan was a Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was present with Ma Zhongying, Ma Shih-ming, Ma Shih-lu, and Ma Ho-ying during a meeting with Yulbars Khan. He fought against Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic and against the pro-Soviet Uighur Khoja Niyaz at Aksu, driving Khoja Niyaz to Kashgar. He and General Ma Zhancang destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic after defeating Uighur and Kirghiz fighters at the Battle of Kashgar (1934), Battle of Yarkand, and Battle of Yangi Hissar Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed by the new 36th division. After entering Kashgar, Ma publicly proclaimed his allegiance to the Republic of China government in Nanjing and announced that Ma Shaowu was reappointed as the Taoyin of Kashgar.

The Second Battle of Ürümqi was a conflict in the winter of 1933–1934 at Ürümqi, between the provincial forces of Sheng Shicai and the alliance of the Chinese Muslim Gen. Ma Zhongying and Han Chinese Gen. Zhang Peiyuan. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. Sheng Shicai commanded Manchurian troops and a unit of White Russian soldiers, led by Col. Pappengut. The Kuomintang Republic of China government had secretly incited Zhang and Ma to overthrow Sheng—even as they prepared to swear him in as governor of Xinjiang—because of his ties to the Soviet Union. Chinese Nationalist leader Gen. Chiang Kai-shek sent Luo Wen'gan to Xinjiang, where he met with Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan and urged them to destroy Sheng.

Tawfiq Bay, or Sayyid Ahmad Tawfiq Bay Sharif Efendi, was a Syrian Arab traveler who had been in the service of King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, eventually traveling to Xinjiang, Republic of China, in 1932. He was deported by the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu. On August 26 he arrived at Kashgar oases. He joined the Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic Muslim fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic, who were fighting against the Chinese Muslim forces of the 36th Division, who were loyal to the Republic of China government. Tawfiq was a Pan Islamist.

Pai Tzu-li was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was the secretary to Ma Zhongying and his age was estimated to be about 40. He was then chief of staff to General Ma Hushan and persuaded him to attack Kashgar in 1937.

Ma Sheng-kuei was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. His grew up in Gansu and Shaanxi in "bad company". Ma practiced banditry was noted for torturing his victims in Ningxia. He joined Ma Zhongying in 1933, and was appointed commander of the Tungan 2nd brigade at Khotan. His troops seized the Fayzabad-Maral-Bashi area. Facing the Soviet Red Army and Sheng Shicai's provincial troops, he defected while at Fazayabad and joined the forces of Sheng Shicai, turning against Ma Hushan's forces at Kashgar. Later Ma was stationed in Khotan and it is thought that he went back to Gansu. According to British diplomatic files he possibly received bribes from Sheng to join Sheng's forces.

Su Chin-shou was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was the Chief of Staff of General Ma Zhancang and was appointed as one of the two tao-yins of Kashgar in May, 1933. He vacated the old city Yamen to join Ma Zhancang in the New City since his fellow Chinese Muslims were massacred at the Kizil massacre.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)</span> Part of the Xinjiang Wars

In 1937 an Islamic rebellion began in southern Xinjiang. The rebels were 1,500 Uighur Muslims commanded by Kichik Akhund, who was tacitly aided by the New 36th Division, against the pro-Soviet provincial forces of the puppet Sheng Shicai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kumul Rebellion</span> Revolt in East Turkistan (1931–1934)

The Kumul Rebellion was a rebellion of Kumulik Uyghurs from 1931 to 1934 who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren, governor of Xinjiang. The Kumul Uyghurs were loyalists of the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the Khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. The various groups of rebels were not united. The main part of the war was waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government. He was supported by Chiang Kai-shek, the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ma Hushan</span> Chinese warlord

Ma Hu-shan was a Hui warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Zhongying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of Southern Xinjiang, nicknamed Tunganistan by Westerners, from 1934 to 1937.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ma Zhongying</span> Chinese warlord

Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying, nickname Commander Ga, was a Hui Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. His birth name was Ma Buying. Ma was a warlord of Gansu Province in China during the 1930s. His alliance with the Kuomintang (KMT) brought his predominantly Chinese Muslim troops under the control of the KMT as the New 36th Division with Ma Zhongying as its commander. He was ordered to overthrow Jin Shuren, the governor of Xinjiang. After several victories over provincial and White Russian forces, he attempted to expand his territory into southern Xinjiang by launching campaigns from his power base in Gansu, but was stopped by Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai with Soviet support in 1934.

Tunganistan is an exonym for the territory in southern Xinjiang administered by the New 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army from 1934 to 1937, amidst the Chinese Civil War in China proper. The New 36th Division consisted almost exclusively of Hui Muslim soldiers and was led by the Hui Muslim warlord Ma Hushan. At the time, the Hui were known as the "Tunganis" in Western literature, hence the name "Tunganistan".

References

  1. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 124. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  2. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. pp. 142, 144. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  3. ↑ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 109. ISBN   0-8135-3533-6 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  4. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. pp. 83, 251. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  5. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 142. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  6. ↑ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir . Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 307. ISBN   0-8101-6071-4.
  7. ↑ M. Rafiq Khan (1963). Islam in China. Delhi: National Academy. p. 63. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  8. ↑ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 263. ISBN   0-8101-6071-4 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  9. ↑ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 308. ISBN   0-8101-6071-4 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  10. ↑ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 307. ISBN   0-8101-6071-4 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  11. ↑ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 308. ISBN   0-8101-6071-4 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  12. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 87. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  13. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 108. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  14. ↑ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 109. ISBN   0-8135-3533-6 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  15. ↑ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 109. ISBN   0-8135-3533-6 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  16. ↑ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 109. ISBN   0-8135-3533-6 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  17. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 89. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  18. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 95. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  19. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 288. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  20. 1 2 Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 112. ISBN   0-8135-3533-6 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  21. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 120. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  22. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 121. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  23. ↑ Ai-ch'ên Wu, Aichen Wu (1940). Turkistan tumult. Methuen: Methuen. pp. 89, 234. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  24. ↑ AP (1 February 1934). "REPULSE REBELS AFTER SIX DAYS". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Retrieved 12 December 2010.[ permanent dead link ]
  25. ↑ AP (17 March 1934). "TUNGAN RAIDERS MASSACRE 2,000". The Miami News. Retrieved 12 December 2010.[ permanent dead link ]
  26. ↑ Associated Press Cable (17 March 1934). "TUNGANS SACK KASHGAR CITY, SLAYING 2,000". The Montreal Gazette. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  27. ↑ "British Officials and 2,000 Natives Slain at Kashgar, on Western Border of China". The New York Times. Associated Press. 17 March 1934. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  28. ↑ AP (17 March 1934). "2000 Killed In Massacre". San Jose News. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  29. ↑ "Fighting Continues Tungan Troops Still Active in Chinese Turkestan". The Montreal Gazette. 10 May 1934. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  30. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 123. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  31. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 134. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  32. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  33. ↑ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN   0-521-25514-7 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  34. ↑ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 267. ISBN   0-8101-6071-4 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  35. ↑ Ella Maillart (2003). Forbidden journey: from Peking to Kashmir (illustrated ed.). Northwestern University Press. p. 185. ISBN   0-8101-1985-4 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  36. ↑ 马从新：“马虎山在和阗始末”，《新疆文史资料》第26辑第209页，1994年版。
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