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The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991 spans the period from the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev's death until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Due to the years of Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development, and complex systemic problems in the command economy, Soviet output stagnated. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the proxies of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the war in Afghanistan led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the Soviet-occupied Baltic countries and Eastern Europe.
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The "Era of Stagnation" is a term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev in order to describe the negative way in which he viewed the economic, political, and social policies of the Soviet Union that began during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev (1964–1982) and continued under Yuri Andropov (1982–1984) and Konstantin Chernenko (1984–1985). It is sometimes called the "Brezhnevian Stagnation" in English.
The 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union met in Moscow from February 24 to March 5, 1976. General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev greeted 4,998 Soviet delegates and representatives from 96 foreign countries. Among Communist-ruled nations, only the People's Republic of China and Albania did not send representatives. The congress itself produced few surprises, with the main emphasis placed on the stability of the political and economic situation and the prospects of continued success in the future. Brezhnev declared that the USSR would not invade or fight other countries, but also stated that he would support national liberation movements, despite détente. Little mention was made of fundamental problems facing the Soviet Union— the slowdown of the rate of economic growth, the low output of agriculture despite heavy investment. The only critical voices raised were those of foreign Communists. French Communist leader Georges Marchais boycotted the congress after criticizing the Soviet Union's suppression of dissidents.
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The 1979 Soviet economic reform, or "Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work", was an economic reform initiated by Alexei Kosygin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. During Leonid Brezhnev's rule of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) the Soviet economy began to stagnate; this period is referred to by historians as the Era of Stagnation. Even after several reform attempts by Kosygin and his protégés, the economic situation in the country continued to deteriorate. In contrast to his earlier reform initiative, the 26th Congress decided that his government would implement the reform during the Eleventh five-year plan from 1981–1985. This never happened, and even Brezhnev complained that implementation of the reform had been slow. This unfinished reform is seen by some as the last major pre-perestroika reform initiative put forward by the Soviet government.
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The history of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (USSR) reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "Soviet Russia" and "Soviet Union" often are synonymous in everyday speech, when referring to the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" often specifically refers to brief period between the October Revolution of 1917 and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
The economy of the Soviet Union was based on state ownership of the means of production, collective farming, and industrial manufacturing. An administrative-command system managed a distinctive form of central planning. The Soviet economy was characterized by state control of investment, prices, a dependence on natural resources, lack of consumer goods, little foreign trade, public ownership of industrial assets, macroeconomic stability, low unemployment and high job security.
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The Eighth Five-Year Plan of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a set of production goals and guidelines for administering the economy from 1966 to 1970—part of a series of such plans used by the USSR from 1928 until its dissolution. "Directives" for the plan involved set high goals for industrial production, especially in vehicles and appliances. These directives for the Eighth Five-Year Plan was approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and by the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union but no final version was apparently ever ratified by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, some of the changes envisioned were made.
References
- Notes
- ↑ Nuti, Leopoldi (2009). The Crisis of Détente in Europe: From Helsinki to Gorbachev, 1975–1985. London; New York: Taylor & Francis. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-415-46051-4.
- ↑ Johnston, Michael; Heidenheimer, Arnold J. (1989). Political Corruption: A Handbook. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers. p. 457. ISBN 0-88738-163-4.
- ↑ Oliver, Michael J; Howard Aldcroft, Derek (2007). Economic Disasters of the Twentieth Century. Cheltenham, UK ; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-84064-589-7.
- ↑ G. Wesson, Robert (1978). Lenin's Legacy: The Story of the CPSU. Stanford, CA: Hoover Press. p. 250. ISBN 0-8179-6922-5.
- ↑ Garthoff, Raymond L. (1994). Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. p. 613. ISBN 0-8157-3041-1.
- ↑ Service, Robert (2009). History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century. London: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 407. ISBN 978-0-14-103797-4.
- ↑ Parrott, Bruce (1985). Trade, Technology, and Soviet-American Relations. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-253-36025-0.
- ↑ Burroughs, William James (1997). Does the Weather Really Matter?: The Social Implications of Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 89. ISBN 0-521-56126-4.
- ↑ Wilson, David (1983). The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union. London : Croom Helm: Taylor & Francis. p. 69. ISBN 0-7099-2704-5.
- ↑ Nuti, Leopoldi (2009). The Crisis of Détente in Europe: From Helsinki to Gorbachev, 1975–1985. London; New York: Taylor & Francis. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-415-46051-4.
- ↑ Beissinger, Mark R. (1988). Scientific Management, Socialist Discipline, and Soviet Power. Cambridege, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-674-79490-7.
- ↑ McFarlane, Bruce J. (1982). Radical Economics. London; Croom Helm: Taylor & Francis. p. 209. ISBN 0-7099-1733-3.
- ↑ Hainsworth, Frank (1978). Economics, What Went Wrong? An Introduction to Political Economy. Vol. 1. Sydney: Taylor & Francis. p. 66. ISBN 0-454-00092-8.