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Cocaine is a tropane alkaloid that acts as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. As an extract, it is mainly used recreationally and often illegally for its euphoric and rewarding effects. It is also used in medicine by Indigenous South Americans for various purposes and rarely, but more formally, as a local anaesthetic or diagnostic tool by medical practitioners in more developed countries. It is primarily obtained from the leaves of two Coca species native to South America: Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense. After extraction from the plant, and further processing into cocaine hydrochloride, the drug is administered by being either snorted, applied topically to the mouth, or dissolved and injected into a vein. It can also then be turned into free base form, in which it can be heated until sublimated and then the vapours can be inhaled.
The economy of Peru is an emerging, mixed economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade and an upper middle income economy as classified by the World Bank. Peru has the forty-seventh largest economy in the world by total GDP and currently experiences a high human development index. The country was one of the world's fastest-growing economies in 2012, with a GDP growth rate of 6.3%. The economy was expected to increase 9.3% in 2021, in a rebound from the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru. Peru has signed a number of free trade agreements with its main trade partners. China became the nation's largest trading partner following the China–Peru Free Trade Agreement signed on 28 April 2009. Additional free trade agreements have been signed with the United States in 2006, Japan in 2011 and the European Union in 2012. Trade and industry are centralized in Lima while agricultural exports have led to regional development within the nation.
Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine.
Plan Colombia was a United States foreign aid, military aid, and diplomatic initiative aimed at combating Colombian drug cartels and left-wing insurgent groups in Colombia. The plan was originally conceived in 1999 by the administrations of Colombian President Andrés Pastrana and U.S. President Bill Clinton, and signed into law in the United States in 2000.
Chinese Peruvians, also known as tusán, are Peruvian citizens whose ancestors came from China.
The balloon effect is a criticism of United States drug policy. The name draws an analogy between efforts to eradicate the production of illegal drugs in South American countries and squeezing a balloon: If a balloon is squeezed the air is moved, but does not disappear, instead moving into another area of less resistance.
The demographic history of Peru shows the structure of the population in different historical periods. Peru's population drastically increased in the 1900s, with a diverse range of ethnic divisions living in the country. Lima is its capital city situated along the Pacific Ocean coast, where most of its population lives, and its population size is around 9.75 million. Major cities are located near the coastal areas of Peru. In terms of population and area size, it is the fourth and third largest country in South America, a place where the ancestral transcends and all forms of art combine. Peru became an independent country on July 28, 1821. However, Peru did not have a proper national census until 1876, more than a half-century after independence. They took the data before the federal census through different mediums but not on a national level. The significant migration in Peru consisted of Indigenous people, Europeans, enslaved Africans, and Asians; Spaniards were the first European who came to Peru, arrived in 1531, and discovered the Inca culture. The Incas established pre-Columbian America's greatest and most advanced kingdom and monarchy. However, native Americans were still in a larger proportion to total population.
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The illegal drug trade in Colombia has, since the 1970s, centered successively on four major drug trafficking cartels: Medellín, Cali, Norte del Valle, and North Coast, as well as several bandas criminales, or BACRIMs. The trade eventually created a new social class and influenced several aspects of Colombian culture, economics, and politics.
Albert Friedrich Emil Niemann was a German chemist. In 1859 — about the same time as Paolo Mantegazza — he isolated cocaine, and he published his finding in 1860.
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Leslie Michael Bethell is an English historian and university professor, who specialises in the study of 19th- and 20th-century Latin America, focusing on Brazil in particular. He received both his Bachelor of Arts and doctorate in history at the University of London. He is emeritus professor of Latin American history, University of London, and emeritus fellow of St Antony's College, University of Oxford. Bethell has served as visiting professor at the University Research Institute of Rio de Janeiro, the University of California, San Diego, the University of Chicago, the Fundação Getulio Vargas in Rio de Janeiro, the University of São Paulo and most recently the Brazil Institute, King's College London from 2011 to 2017. He has been associated with the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars for many years, most recently as senior scholar of the Brazil Institute from 2010 to 2015. He was a fellow of St Antony's College and founding director of the Centre for Brazilian Studies at the University of Oxford from 1997 to 2007. He was lecturer, reader and professor of Latin American history in the University of London from 1966 to 1992 and director of the University of London Institute of Latin American Studies from 1987 to 1992.
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The economic history of Latin America covers the development of the Latin American economy from 2500 BCE to the start of the 21st century.
Carmen Diana Deere is an American feminist economist who is an expert on land policy and agrarian reform, rural social movements, and gender in Latin American development. Deere is Professor Emeritus of Latin American studies and Food Resources Economics at the University of Florida and Professor Emeritus of FLACSO-Ecuador. She was honored with the Silvert Award in 2018.
References
- ↑ "Paul Gootenberg". State University of New York at Stony Brook website. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2011.
- 1 2 3 Gootenberg, Paul (June 26, 2009). "Cocaine's first full-length biography". Rorotoko. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
- ↑ "Fellows Finder - Paul Gootenberg". John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
- ↑ "Initiative for Historical Social Sciences". State University of New York, Stony Brook website. Archived from the original on April 21, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
- ↑ Drinot, Paolo (2009). "Review: Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug". Social History. 35 (3): 341–342. JSTOR 27866666.
- ↑ Uribe-Uran, Victor M. (October 2009). "Political Economy & Globalization". The Americas. 66 (2): 299–301. doi:10.1353/tam.0.0199. S2CID 143903538. ProQuest 209593362.
- ↑ Bauer, Arnold J. (Winter 2008). "Tracking Cocaine" (PDF). A Contracorriente. 7 (2): 370–375. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2016.
- ↑ Carey, Elaine (April 2011). "Cocaine's Rise and Fall: A New Global History". H-net Reviews. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
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