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Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol | |
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6th President of Guatemala | |
In office 14 April 1865 –24 May 1865 | |
Preceded by | Rafael Carrera y Turcios |
Succeeded by | Vicente Cerna y Cerna |
Secretary of Foreign Affairs of Guatemala | |
In office 1851 –14 April 1865 | |
President | Rafael Carrera |
Personal details | |
Born | 19 October 1802 |
Died | 14 March 1897 94) Guatemala City,Guatemala [1] | (aged
Political party | Conservative |
Occupation | politician,diplomat |
Signature | |
Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol (19 October 1802 –14 May 1897 [1] ) was a conservative politician and member of the Aycinena clan that worked closely with the conservative regime of Rafael Carrera. He was interim president of Guatemala in 1865 after the death of president for life,general Rafael Carrera.
Aycinena y Piñol was the son of Vicente Aycinena,the second marquis of Aycinena,and was the younger brother of cleric Juan Joséde Aycinena y Piñol,who inherited the title. Pedro's uncle was Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol,also prominent member of the powerful family. Pedro married his first cousin,Dolores de Aycinena y Micheo,the daughter of a prominent member of the government of Ferdinand VII. Pedro served as Guatemalan minister of foreign relations (1854-71) and therefore played a major role in its foreign policy. [2]
Concordat between the Holy See and the President of the Republic of Guatemala | |
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Created | 1852 |
Ratified | 1854 |
Location | Vatican Holy See and Congress of Guatemala |
Author(s) | Fernando Lorenzana and Juan Joséde Aycinena y Piñol |
In 1854 a Concordat was established with the Holy See,which was signed in 1852 by Cardinal Antonelli,Secretary of State of the Vatican and Fernando Lorenzana plenipotentiary -Guatemala Ambassador before the Holy See. Through this treaty -which was designed by Aycinena clan leader,Dr. and clergyman Juan Joséde Aycinena y Piñol [3] - Guatemala placed its people education under the control of Catholic Church regular orders,committed itself to respect Church property and monasteries,authorized mandatory tithing and allowed the bishops to censor whatever was published in the country;in return,Guatemala received blessings for members of the army,allowed those who had acquired the properties that the Liberals had expropriated the Church in 1829 to keep them,perceived taxes generated by the properties of the Church,and had the right,under Guatemalan law,to judge ecclesiastics who perpetrated certain crimes. [4] The concordat was ratified by Pedro de Aycinena and Rafael Carrera in 1854 and kept a close relationship between Church and State in the country;it was in force until the fall of the conservative government of Marshal Vicente Cerna y Cerna. [4]
Wyke-Aycinena treaty | |
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Created | April 30, 1859 |
Ratified | September 26, 1859 |
Location | United Kingdom United Kingdom and Guatemala,Guatemala City. |
Author(s) | Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol |
Purpose | Define the borders between the British settlement of Belize and Guatemala. [5] |
The Belize region in the Yucatan Peninsula was never occupied by either Spain or Guatemala,even though Spain made some exploratory expeditions in the 16th century that served as its basis to claim the area; [6] Guatemala simply inherited that argument to claim the territory,even though it never sent any expedition to the area after the Independence from Spain in 1821,due to the Central American civil war that ensued and lasted until 1860. [6] On the other hand,the British had established a small settlement there since the middle of the 17th century,mainly as buccaneers quarters and then for fine wood production;the settlements were never recognized as British colonies even though they were somewhat under the jurisdiction of the Jamaican British government. [6] In the 18th century,Belize became the main smuggling center for Central America,even though the British accepted Spanish sovereignty over the region by means of the 1783 and 1786 treaties,in exchange for a cease fire and the authorization for the Englishmen to continue logging in Belize. [6]
After the Central America independence from Spain in 1821,Belize became the leading edge of the commercial entrance of Britain in the isthmus;British commercial brokers established themselves there and created prosperous commercial routes with the Caribbean harbors of Guatemala,Honduras and Nicaragua. [6]
The liberals came to power in Guatemala in 1829 after defeating and expelling the Aycinena family and the regular clergy from the Catholic church,and began a formal complaint before the English crown about the Belize area; [7] at the same time,the liberal caudillo Francisco Morazán,then president of the Central American Federation,had personal dealings with British interests,especially on the fine wood market. In Guatemala,liberal governor Mariano Gálvez made several land concessions to British citizens,among them the best farmland in the country,Hacienda de San Jerónimo in Verapaz;these dealings with Englishmen were used by the secular clergy in Guatemala –who had not been expelled as the monasteries,but had lost the revenue from mandatory tithing which had left it weakened –to accuse the liberal government of heresy and to start a peasant revolt against the heretic liberals and in favor of the "true religion". [8] When Rafael Carrera,peasant revolt leader and commander,came to power in 1840,he stopped the complaints over Belize,and established a Guatemalan consulate in the region to oversee the Guatemalan interests in that important commercial location. [6] Belize commerce was booming in the region until 1855,when the Colombians built a transoceanic railway,which allowed commerce to flow more efficiently to the port at the Pacific;from then on,Belize's commercial importance began a steep decline. [6]
When the Caste War of Yucatán began in 1847 in the Yucatan Peninsula –a Maya uprising that resulted in thousands of murdered European settlers –the representatives of Belize and Guatemala were on high alert;Yucatan refugees fled into both Guatemala and Belize and even the Belize superintendent came to fear that Carrera –given his strong alliance with Guatemalan natives –could support the native uprisings in Central America. [6] In the 1850s,the British showed their good will to settle the territorial differences with the Central American countries:they withdrew from the Mosquito Coast in Nicaragua and began talks that would end up in the restoration of the territory to Nicaragua in 1894:returned the Bay Islands to Honduras and even negotiated with the American filibuster William Walker in an effort to avoid the invasion of Honduras. [9] They also signed a treaty with Guatemala about its border with Belize,which has been called by Guatemalans the worst mistake made by the conservative regime of Rafael Carrera. [9]
Aycinena y Piñol,as Foreign Secretary,had made an extra effort to keep good relations with the British crown. In 1859,William Walker's threat loomed again over Central America;in order to get the weapons needed to face the filibuster,Carrera's regime had to come to terms about Belize with the British Empire. On 30 April 1859,the Wyke-Aycinena treaty was signed between the English and Guatemalan representatives. [10] The controversial Wyke-Aycinena from 1859 had two parts:
Among those who signed the treaty was JoséMilla y Vidaurre,who worked with Aycinena in the Foreign Ministry. [10] Rafael Carrera ratified the treaty on 1 May 1859,while Charles Lennox Wyke,British consul in Guatemala,traveled to Great Britain and received the royal approval on 26 September 1859. [5] There were some protests coming from the U.S. consul,Beverly Clarke,and some liberal representatives,but the issue was settled. [5]
The history of Guatemala begins with the Maya civilization. The country's modern history coincides with the Spanish conquest of Guatemala in 1524. Most of the great Classic-era (250–900AD) Maya cities of the Petén Basin region,in the northern lowlands,had been abandoned by the year 1000AD. The states in the Belize central highlands flourished until the 1525 arrival of Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado,who was called "The Invader" by the Maya people,he immediately began subjugating the indigenous states.
JoséRafael Carrera y Turcios was the president of Guatemala from 1844 to 1848 and from 1851 until his death in 1865,after being appointed President for life in 1854. During his military career and presidency,new nations in Central America were facing numerous problems:William Walker's invasions,liberal attempts to overthrow the Catholic Church and aristocrats' power,the Civil War in the United States,Mayan uprising in the east,Belize boundary dispute with the United Kingdom,and the wars in Mexico under Benito Juárez. This led to a rise of caudillos,a term that refers to charismatic populist leaders among the indigenous people.
Salamá is a city in Guatemala. It is the capital of the department of Baja Verapaz and it is situated at 940 m above sea level. The municipality of Salamá,for which the city of Salamáserves as the administrative centre,covers a total surface area of 764 km2 with a population of 65,275 inhabitants at the 2018 census.
Francisco Malespín Herrera was a Salvadoran military officer and politician,elected as the president of El Salvador in 1844. He served from 7 February 1844 to 15 February 1845,when he was deposed by his vice president Joaquín Eufrasio Guzmán after invading and overthrowing the liberal government in Nicaraguan. He also led El Salvador to a short unsuccessful war against Guatemala. After being deposed,Malespin returned to El Salvador with forces from Honduras,but he was captured and assassinated. Some of Malespin's closest allies were Francisco Ferrera in Honduras as well as Juan Lindo,both conservatives. He was supported by Honduras after his downfall.
Doroteo Vasconcelos Vides y Ladrón de Guevara was President of El Salvador 7 February 1848 - 1 February 1850 and 4 February 1850 –1 March 1851. Vasconcelos was close friend of Honduran general Francisco Morazán. He tried to invade Guatemala and defeat general Rafael Carrera on 2 February 1851 but he was defeated. After defeat,he retired from public life.
San Jerónimo is a town and municipality in the Baja Verapaz department of Guatemala. The municipality is situated at 940 metres above sea level and has a population of 25,459. It covers an area of 275 km². The annual festival is September 28 –September 30.
Mataquescuintla is a town and municipality in the Jalapa department of south-east Guatemala. It covers 262 square kilometres (101 sq mi).
JoséFelipe Mariano Gálvez was a jurist and Liberal politician in Guatemala. For two consecutive terms from August 28,1831,to March 3,1838,he was chief of state of the State of Guatemala,within the Federal Republic of Central America. In 1836,he was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society.
María Josefa García Granados y Zavala was a Guatemalan intellectual,writer,journalist and poet of Spanish origin,and one of the greatest intellectual exponents of the independence of Guatemala,which was achieved in 1821. She was also a feminist ahead of her time,who with her strong and dominant character influenced Guatemalan culture. She was the sister of General Miguel García Granados,who was the first liberal president of Guatemala,and Adelaida García Granados,who was tutor of Petrona Álvarez,wife of General Rafael Carrera,lifelong conservative president of Guatemala. As his family was part of the Aycinena clan,they suffered exile and dispossession of their property by Francisco Morazán in 1829.
Mariano Paredes (1800—1856) was President of Guatemala from January 1,1849 to November 6,1851 as a compromise chief of state. Paredes,an army colonel,came to power after Rafael Carrera was ineffective in quelling uprisings in eastern Guatemala and short-term governments failed to restore order. But Mariano Paredes was unable to control Guatemala.
Mariano Rivera Paz was Head of State of Guatemala and its first president.
Juan Joséde Aycinena y Piñol was an ecclesiastical and intellectual conservative in Central America. He was President of the Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo from 1825 to 1829 and then of the Universidad Nacional from 1840 to 1865. He was a thinker criticized by liberal historians for his strong relationship with the conservative government of General Rafael Carrera and for eliminating the possibility of getting the Central American Union which the Liberals wanted. His participation in the government has been assessed more objectively in research conducted between 1980 and 2010. He was heir in 1814 to the noble title of III Marquess of Aycinena,and bishop in partibus of Trajanopolis from 1859. He had a taste for law,oratorical talent and wrote over twenty works.
Vicente Cerna y Cerna was president of Guatemala from 24 May 1865 to 29 June 1871. Loyal friend and comrade of Rafael Carrera,was appointed army's Field Marshal after Carraera's victory against Salvadorian leader Gerardo Barrios in 1863. He was appointed Carrera's successor after the caudillo's death in 1865 even though Guatemalan leaders would have preferred Field Marshal JoséVíctor Zavala.
The Concordat of 1854 was an international treaty between the president of the Republic of Guatemala - General Captain Rafael Carrera - and the Holy See,which was signed in 1852 and ratified by both parties in 1854. Through this,Guatemala gave the education of Guatemalan people to regular orders Catholic Church,committed to respect ecclesiastical property and monasteries,imposed mandatory tithing and allowed the bishops to censor what was published in the country;in return,Guatemala received dispensations for the members of the army,allowed those who had acquired the properties that the Liberals had expropriated the Church in 1829 to keep those properties,perceived taxes generated by the properties of the Church,and had the right to judge certain crimes committed by clergy under Guatemalan law. The concordat was designed by Juan Joséde Aycinena y Piñol and reestablished the relationship between Church and State in Guatemala. It was in force until the fall of the conservative government of Marshal Vicente Cerna y Cerna
Luis Batres Juarros or Luis Batres y Juarros was an influential conservative Guatemalan politician during the regime of General Rafael Carrera. Member of the Aycinena clan,was in charge of writing most of the legislation that was enacted during this period. The liberal historians portray him as a villain in a despotic and tyrannical government headed by illiterate Raca Carraca - Rafael Carrera - who was taking each and every one of Batres recommendations since he was considered infallible;However,research conducted between 1980 and 2010 has shown a more objective biography of both Batres and Rafael Carrera and show that it was in fact Carrera who had the reins of the Conservative government.
Agustín Guzmán López,nicknamed "The Altense Hero",was a liberal Central American military general,politician and positivist,who was appointed as Army Commander in Chief of the State of Los Altos when it was formed as part of the Federal Republic of Central America on March 2,1838. He was defeated by Rafael Carrera on March 19,1840,and Los Altos was re-annexed by Guatemala. Trying to re-establish Los Altos once again while Carrera was briefly in exile in 1848,he tried to occupy Guatemala City along with rebel leader Agustín Reyes,and after setting fire to Carrera's house,he was killed by enemy fire in the Plaza de Armas.
Manuel Francisco Pavón Aycinena was a conservative Guatemalan politician during the regime of General Rafael Carrera. He was influential in the founding of the government's executive branch and held several Cabinet offices during his career.
Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol was wealthy and influential Guatemalan merchant family and an important conservative politician. A younger son of the first marquis of Aycinena,peninsular-born Juan Fermín de Aycinena (1729–1796),Mariano was a leader of Guatemalan independence from Spain. He served governor of the State of Guatemala in the Central American Federation from 1 March 1827 to 12 April 1829 and patriarch of the Aycinena family. The family had the commercial monopoly in Central American during the Spanish colonial era later year thanks to the Consulado de Comercio. He was one of the signatories of Central American independence and lobbied heavily for the annexation of Central America to the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide. This arrangement would keep the family's economic position and privileges following independence. After being expelled along with the Aycinena family in 1829 after being defeated by Francisco Morazán,went into exile in the United States and then to Mexico. He came back to Guatemala after the conservatives had allied with general Rafael Carrera;but then he retired from public life and hand the Aycinena family leadership to Juan Joséde Aycinena y Piñol.
The Carrera Theater was a majestic classic Greek style theater built by president Captain General Rafael Carrera y Turcios in Guatemala City,Guatemala in 1852. The building was in the Old Central Square and after the liberal revolution of 1871 it was called National Theater. Towards the end of general Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián government,the building was remodeled to celebrate the Discovery of America fourth centennial anniversary. Finally,the theatre was destroyed by the earthquakes of 1917–18 and demolished in 1923.
The First Central American Civil War was a civil political and military conflict within the Federal Republic of Central America which lasted from 1827 until 1829. The civil war was fought between Liberal and Conservative lines with Francisco Morazán leading the Liberals and Manuel JoséArce,a former Liberal,leading the Conservatives.