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| Names | |
|---|---|
| IUPAC name (Z)-2-(3-Methyl-2,5-dioxopyrrol-1-yl)but-2-enoic acid | |
| Identifiers | |
3D model (JSmol) | |
| ChemSpider | |
PubChem CID | |
| UNII | |
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| Properties | |
| C9H9NO4 | |
| Molar mass | 195.174 g·mol−1 |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). | |
| Infobox references | |
Pencolide is a maleimide isolate of Penicillium [1] and seaweed endophytic fungi. [2]
An endophyte is an endosymbiont, often a bacterium or fungus, that lives within a plant for at least part of its life cycle without causing apparent disease. Endophytes are ubiquitous and have been found in all species of plants studied to date; however, most of the endophyte/plant relationships are not well understood. Some endophytes may enhance host growth, nutrient acquisition and improve the plant's ability to tolerate abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity and decrease biotic stresses by enhancing plant resistance to insects, pathogens and herbivores.
Penicillium roqueforti is a common saprotrophic fungus in the genus Penicillium. Widespread in nature, it can be isolated from soil, decaying organic matter, and plants.
Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) is a toxic fungal secondary metabolite. Chemically, CPA is related to ergoline alkaloids. CPA was originally isolated from Penicillium cyclopium and subsequently from other fungi including Penicillium griseofulvum, Penicillium camemberti, Penicillium commune, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus versicolor. CPA only appears to be toxic in high concentrations. Ingestion of CPA causes one to be an anorexic, to be dehydrated, to lose weight, to be immobile, and has some sign of spasm when near death. They can be found in molds, corns, peanuts, and other fermented products, such as cheese and sausages. Biologically, CPA is a specific inhibitor of SERCA ATPase in intracellular Ca2+ storage sites. CPA inhibits SERCA ATPase by keeping it in one specific confirmation, thus, preventing it from forming another. CPA also binds to SERCA ATPase at the same site as another inhibitor, thapsigargin (TG). In this way, CPA lowers the ability of SERCA ATPase to bind an ATP molecule.
Penicillium chrysogenum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium. It is common in temperate and subtropical regions and can be found on salted food products, but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings. It has been recognised as a species complex that includes P. notatum, P. meleagrinum, and P. cyaneofulvum, but molecular phylogeny established that it is a distinct species and that P. notatum is P. rubens. It has rarely been reported as a cause of human disease. It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly penicillin. Other secondary metabolites of P. chrysogenum include roquefortine C, meleagrin, chrysogine, 6-MSA YWA1/melanin, andrastatin A, fungisporin, secalonic acids, sorbicillin, and PR-toxin.
Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense occurs when endophytic fungi, which live symbiotically with the majority of plants by entering their cells, are utilized as an indirect defense against herbivores. In exchange for carbohydrate energy resources, the fungus provides benefits to the plant which can include increased water or nutrient uptake and protection from phytophagous insects, birds or mammals. Once associated, the fungi alter nutrient content of the plant and enhance or begin production of secondary metabolites. The change in chemical composition acts to deter herbivory by insects, grazing by ungulates and/or oviposition by adult insects. Endophyte-mediated defense can also be effective against pathogens and non-herbivory damage.
Altechromone A is a chromone derivative. To date, it has been isolated from plant families such as Polygonaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Hypericaceae.
Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. They are not a taxonomic group, but share a common habitat. Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the marine habitat while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even sporulating in a marine habitat. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of basidiomycetes, and 177 genera and 360 species of ascomycetes. The remainder of the marine fungi are chytrids and mitosporic or asexual fungi. Many species of marine fungi are known only from spores and it is likely a large number of species have yet to be discovered. In fact, it is thought that less than 1% of all marine fungal species have been described, due to difficulty in targeting marine fungal DNA and difficulties that arise in attempting to grow cultures of marine fungi. It is impracticable to culture many of these fungi, but their nature can be investigated by examining seawater samples and undertaking rDNA analysis of the fungal material found.
Viscumamide is a cyclic peptide isolated from endophytic fungi of mangrove.
Fungal isolates have been researched for decades. Because fungi often exist in thin mycelial monolayers, with no protective shell, immune system, and limited mobility, they have developed the ability to synthesize a variety of unusual compounds for survival. Researchers have discovered fungal isolates with anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and other bio-active properties. The first statins, β-Lactam antibiotics, as well as a few important antifungals, were discovered in fungi.
Medicinal fungi are fungi which contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites through biotechnology to develop prescription drugs. Compounds successfully developed into drugs or are under research include antibiotics, anti-cancer drugs, cholesterol and ergosterol synthesis inhibitors, psychotropic drugs, immunosuppressants and fungicides.
Penicillium coffeae is a fungus species of the genus of Penicillium which was isolated from the plant Coffea arabica L. in Hawaii. Insects play a role in spreading Penicillium coffeae.
Penicillium copticola is a species of the genus of Penicillium which was isolated from the twigs, leaves, and apical and lateral buds of the plant Cannabis sativa L..
Penicillium decaturense is a species of the genus of Penicillium which was isolated from a fungus in North America. Penicillium decaturense produces citrinin, 15-Deoxyoxalicine B, decaturins A and decaturins A
Penicillium duclauxii is an anamorph species of the genus of Penicillium which produces xenoclauxin and duclauxin.
Penicillium hirayamae is an anamorph species of the genus of Penicillium which produces rubrorotiorin.
Penicillium hordei is a species of the genus of Penicillium which produces corymbiferone and roquefortine C.
Penicillium paxilli is an anamorph, saprophytic species of the genus Penicillium which produces paxilline, paxisterol, penicillone, pyrenocine A, paspaline B and verruculogene. Penicillium paxilli is used as a model to study the biochemistry of the indol-diterepene biosysnthesis
Penicillium polonicum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces penicillic acid, verucosidin, patulin, anacine, 3-methoxyviridicatin and glycopeptides. Penicillium polonicum can spoil cereals, peanuts, onions, dried meats, citrus fruits
Penicillium vinaceum is an anamorph species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces penicillivinacine, vinaxanthone and citrmycetin.
The phomoxanthones are a loosely defined class of natural products. The two founding members of this class are phomoxanthone A and phomoxanthone B. Other compounds were later also classified as phomoxanthones, although a unifying nomenclature has not yet been established. The structure of all phomoxanthones is derived from a dimer of two covalently linked tetrahydroxanthones, and they differ mainly in the position of this link as well as in the acetylation status of their hydroxy groups. The phomoxanthones are structurally closely related to other tetrahydroxanthone dimers such as the secalonic acids and the eumitrins. While most phomoxanthones were discovered in fungi of the genus Phomopsis, most notably in the species Phomopsis longicolla, some have also been found in Penicillium sp.
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