Perspective-taking

Last updated

Perspective-taking is the act of perceiving a situation or understanding a concept from an alternative point of view, such as that of another individual. [1]

Contents

A vast amount of scientific literature suggests that perspective-taking is crucial to human development [2] and that it may lead to a variety of beneficial outcomes. [3] [4] Perspective-taking may also be possible in some non-human animals. [5]

Both theory and research have suggested ages when children begin to perspective-take and how that ability develops over time. [2] [6] Research suggests that certain people who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with comorbid conduct problems (such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder) [7] [8] or autism [9] may have reduced ability to engage in perspective-taking.

Studies to assess the brain regions involved in perspective-taking suggest that several regions may be involved, including the prefrontal cortex and the precuneus. [10]

Perspective-taking is related to other theories and concepts including theory of mind [11] and empathy. [12]

Definition

Perspective-taking takes place when an individual views a situation from another's point-of-view. [1] [13] Perspective-taking has been defined along two dimensions: perceptual and conceptual. [14]

Perceptual perspective-taking is the ability to understand how another person experiences things through their senses (i.e. visually or auditorily). [14] Most of the literature devoted to perceptual perspective-taking focuses on visual perspective-taking: the ability to understand the way another person sees things in physical space. [6]

Conceptual perspective-taking is the ability to comprehend and take on the viewpoint of another person's psychological experience (i.e. thoughts, feelings, and attitudes). [14]

Theory of mind

Theory of mind is the awareness that people have individual psychological states that differ from one another. [15] Within perspective-taking literature, the term perspective-taking and theory of mind are sometimes used interchangeably; some studies use theory of mind tasks in order to test if someone is engaging in perspective-taking. [16] The two concepts are related but different: theory of mind is the recognition that another person has different thoughts and feelings while perspective-taking is the ability to take on that other person's point of view. [11]

Empathy

Empathy has been defined as the ability to share the same emotions another person is having. [17] Empathy and perspective-taking have been studied together in a variety of ways. There are not always clear lines of distinction between empathy and perspective-taking; the two concepts are often studied in conjunction with one another and viewed as related and similar. Some research distinguishes the two concepts and points out their differences, [1] while other literature theorizes that perspective-taking is one component of empathy. [12] [18]

In development

Visual

Architecture students draw a ball and scaffolding. Everyone sees its shapes from a different perspective Visual perspective-taking, Gdansk University of Technology.jpg
Architecture students draw a ball and scaffolding. Everyone sees its shapes from a different perspective

Studies have assessed the age at which humans are capable of visual perspective-taking, and have drawn different conclusions.

In 1956, Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder conducted a study to assess the visual perspective-taking abilities of young children. This study has come to be known as the three mountain problem. [2] It found that by the ages of nine to ten, children can successfully complete the three mountain problem and they seem able to understand that when someone is standing in a different location (i.e. on a different mountain top) they have a different view. However, children ages eight and under struggled with this task. [2]

Since this classic study, a number of studies have suggested that visual perspective-taking may be possible earlier than the age of nine. [19] [20] For example, a study that used a different method to assess visual perspective-taking suggested that children may be able to successfully visually perspective-take by the age of four and a half years old. [19] In this study, four-and-a-half-year-old children were able to understand that someone sitting closer to a picture would have a better view of that picture. However, these researchers found that children who were three and three-and-a-half years old struggled with this task which led them to conclude that the age range of three to four-and-a-half years old could be crucial in perspective-taking development. [19]

Developmental psychologist John H. Flavell suggested that there are two levels of visual perspective-taking that emerge as children develop: [6]

  1. Level 1 perspective-taking is defined as the ability to understand that someone else may see things differently and to understand what another person can see in physical space. [6] For example, one could understand that while an object may be obstructing their own view, from where another person is standing they can see a cat in the room.
  2. Level 2 perspective-taking is defined as the understanding that another person can see things differently in physical space and to understand how those objects are organized from that other person's point of view. [6] For example, a person can understand that from another person's point of view they can see a dog to the right but from their own point of view the dog is to the left.

Studies have examined when children are able to demonstrate level 1 and level 2 perspective-taking. These studies have shown that children at 24 months old [21] [22] and 14 months old [23] may be able to engage in level 1 perspective-taking, and be able to understand various lines of sight depending on the position of a person. [24] [25] Research also suggests that children can engage in level 2 perspective-taking as early as two and a half years old. [26]

Studies also suggest that visual perspective-taking ability improves from childhood to adulthood. [27] For example, in comparing six-year-olds, eight-year-olds, ten-year-olds, and adults (averaging 19 years old) researchers found that as people's age increases, visual perspective-taking tasks can be done with more accuracy and speed. [28]

Conceptual

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, he suggests that perspective-taking begins in the concrete operational stage (third stage) which ranges from ages seven to twelve. [29] In this stage the idea of decentration is introduced as a cognitive ability (decentration is the ability to take into account the way others perceive various aspects of a given situation). [29]

Another developmental perspective-taking theory was created by Robert L. Selman and called social perspective-taking theory (or Role-taking theory). This theory suggests that there are five developmental stages involved in perspective-taking ranging from ages three to six (characterized by egocentrism or an inability to think of things from another's point of view) to teenagers and adults (who can understand another person's point of view and whose understanding is informed by recognizing another person's environment and culture). [30] The theory suggests that as humans mature from childhood to adulthood their ability to perspective-take improves. Studies by Selman and colleagues suggest that children can perspective-take in different ways at different ages. [31]

Other studies assess that children can begin to take on the viewpoint of another person, considering their feelings, thoughts, and attitudes, as four-year-olds. [14] [32]

In adults

Although the distinction between visual and cognitive perspective-taking is important, some authors claim that all forms of perspective-taking rely on the same general ability, and different types of perspective-taking correlate. [33] [34]

With respect to visual perspective-taking in adults, Tversky and Hard (2009) have shown that observers tend to use the point of view of another person when describing the spatial relations of objects. [35] Processing other perspectives may be spontaneous, and according to some studies even automatic. [36]

There are also cases where we spontaneously evaluate what another person is seeing, but we make systematic mistakes. A striking example is when a person in a scene is looking towards a mirror, we often interpret that as if they are seeing themselves even when the layout makes it impossible. This phenomenon is known as the Venus effect [37]

Brain regions

Visual

Visual perspective-taking studies that focus on brain regions are generally performed by collecting functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data while participants perform perspective-taking tasks. For example, a participant may be shown a picture of another person with objects around them and asked to take on the viewpoint of that person and indicate the number of objects they see (Level 1 visual perspective-taking) and if the objects are located to the right or left of the other person (level 2 visual perspective-taking). [10] While the participant is completing this task they are also having an fMRI scan.

A meta-analysis that looked at fMRI research on visual perspective-taking as of 2013 suggested that several areas of the brain have clustered activation during these perspective-taking tasks. These areas included the left prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, and the left cerebellum. [10] Studies suggest these areas of the brain are involved in decision-making [38] visual imagery, [39] and attention [40] respectively[ clarification needed ].

Conceptual

Research also suggests that multiple brain areas are involved in conceptual perspective-taking. Studies have been conducted by administering a positron emission tomography (PET) scan and asking participants to engage in perspective-taking tasks. For example, in one study, participants who were all medical students were asked to consider the knowledge base someone who was not in the medical field would have on a list of medical questions. [41]

Studies suggest that regions that are activated during cognitive perspective-taking include the right parietal lobe and the posterior cingulate cortex among others. [41] [42] Some areas seem to be involved both when people imagine themselves and when they imagine the perspective of others. For example, when participants were asked to imagine themselves engaging in an activity versus imagining another person engaging in that activity the precuneus and the supplementary motor area (SMA) were activated, suggesting visual imagery and motor movement thoughts were involved in both tasks. [42]

Deficits

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Research highlights that perspective-taking may be more difficult for some children who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) plus co-occurring conduct disorders. ADHD research has shown that children with this diagnosis demonstrate impairments in attention and communication: [7] They have a harder time taking on the viewpoint of others than children who do not. [8]

Autism

Evidence suggests that children with autism may be able to engage in visual perspective-taking but have difficulty engaging in conceptual perspective-taking. [43] For example, a study that compared perspective-taking scores in children who had been diagnosed with autism as compared to children who did not have this diagnosis found no significant difference in scores on level 1 and level 2 visual perspective-taking. However, the study found it was much harder for autistic children to engage in conceptual perspective-taking tasks. [9]

Some studies have explored potential interventions that could help improve perspective-taking abilities in children with autism. They suggest that video may help teach perspective-taking skills in such children. [44] [16] One intervention study with autistic children found that showing the children a video of someone engaging in perspective-taking tasks and explaining their actions led to improved perspective-taking ability. [16]

Outcomes

An abundance of literature links perspective-taking abilities with other behaviors. Much of this literature focuses on conceptual perspective-taking. [14]

Benefit

Conceptual perspective-taking gives one the ability to better understand the reason behind another person's actions. This also helps one engage in social conversations in an acceptable and friendly way.

Empathy

Many studies associate perspective-taking with empathy. Psychologist Mark Davis suggested that empathy consists of multiple dimensions. To assess this, Davis developed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). [12] The IRI consists of four subscales: fantasy, empathic concern, personal distress, and perspective-taking. The perspective-taking subscale asks participants to report how likely they are to engage in trying to see things from another person's point of view. [12] Studies using this widely cited measure found that perspective-taking is associated with many prosocial behaviors. One study, which assessed cross-cultural data in 63 countries using the IRI, concluded that perspective-taking and empathic concern was associated with volunteerism and agreeableness as well as self-esteem and life satisfaction. [45]

Research suggests that perspective-taking leads to empathic concern. [46] This research distinguishes between two different types of perspective-taking: thinking of how oneself would act, feel, and behave if placed in someone else's situation and thinking of the way that another person thinks, feels, and behaves in their own situation. [46] The results of this research reveals that thinking of how another person behaves and feels in their own situation leads to feelings of empathy. However, thinking of how one would behave in another person's situation leads to feelings of empathy as well as of distress. [46]

Research also finds that in negotiations, taking on the perspective of another person and empathizing with them may have differential outcomes[ clarification needed ]. One study found that people who engaged in perspective-taking were more effective in making a deal with another person and in finding innovative agreements that satisfied both parties, as compared to those who empathized with someone else. [1]

Sympathy and caring

Research reveals that perspective-taking is associated with sympathy toward others and prosocial behavior in children as young as 18 months old. [47] A study of sibling interactions found that toddlers who were older siblings were more likely to help take care of their younger siblings when they[ clarification needed ] demonstrated higher perspective-taking abilities. [48]

Creativity

Perspective-taking is also associated with creativity. It increases the amount of creative ideas generated in team activities. [49] One study suggests that perspective-taking leads to more creative and innovative ideas particularly in participants who are internally driven to complete a task. [4]

Bias and stereotype reduction

Many studies find potential benefits of perspective-taking on the perceptions of outgroup members[ clarification needed ]. Studies on perspective-taking and bias and stereotyping are generally done by asking participants to take the perspective of another person who is different from them in certain domains (i.e. asking young adult participants to take on the perspective of an elderly person or asking White participants to take on the perspective of a Black person seen in a photograph or video). [3] Such studies show that perspective-taking can lead to reduced stereotyping of outgroup members, [50] improved attitudes towards others, [51] and increased helping behavior of outgroup members[ clarification needed ]. Perspective-taking can lead to reduced in-group favoritism. [50] Research on implicit (or unconscious) biases found that perspective-taking can reduce implicit bias scores (as measured by the Implicit-association test) as well as more recognition of subtle discrimination.[ clarification needed ] [3]

In disagreements

Research into differences between having a conversation with someone whom you agree with versus with someone with whom you disagree finds that participants who disagreed had enhanced perspective-taking ability and could better remember the conversation. [52]

Drawbacks

Some researchers suggest drawbacks to perspective-taking. For example, studies found that asking people to engage in perspective-taking tasks can lead to increased stereotyping of the target if the target is deemed as having more stereotypic qualities [53] and as adopting stereotypic behaviors of outgroup members. [54]

Other animals

Studies to assess if nonhuman animals can successfully engage in perspective-taking have not drawn consistent conclusions. Many such studies assess perspective-taking by training animals on specific tasks or by measuring how consistently animals follow the eye gaze of humans. Being able to successfully follow another's eye gaze could indicate that the animal is aware that the human is seeing and paying attention to something that is different from what they see. [55]

A study of spider monkeys and capuchin monkeys found that these primates successfully performed eye gazing tasks. This led researchers to conclude that the monkeys demonstrated some ability to consider another person's viewpoint. [55] However, another study found that Rhesus monkeys were unsuccessful at such eye gazing tasks. [56]

Studies suggest that dogs have complex social understanding. [57] In one study, researchers told a dog it was not allowed to eat a treat and then placed the treat in a location that the dog could reach. [5] Dogs were more likely to eat the treat after being instructed not to if there was a barrier that hid the dog from the instructor. Dogs were less likely to eat the treat if the barrier was of smaller size or had a window in it. This study also showed that dogs struggled in other tasks that focused on the dog's own visual attention. These researchers suggest that this study provides evidence that dogs may be aware of other's visual perspectives. [5]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Empathy</span> Capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing

Empathy is generally described as the ability to take on another's perspective, to understand, feel, and possibly share and respond to their experience. There are more definitions of empathy that include but is not limited to social, cognitive, and emotional processes primarily concerned with understanding others. Often times, empathy is considered to be a broad term, and broken down into more specific concepts and types that include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, somatic empathy, and spiritual empathy.

In psychology, theory of mind refers to the capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them. A theory of mind includes the knowledge that others' beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions, and thoughts may be different from one's own. Possessing a functional theory of mind is crucial for success in everyday human social interactions. People utilize a theory of mind when analyzing, judging, and inferring others' behaviors. The discovery and development of theory of mind primarily came from studies done with animals and infants. Factors including drug and alcohol consumption, language development, cognitive delays, age, and culture can affect a person's capacity to display theory of mind. Having a theory of mind is similar to but not identical with having the capacity for empathy or sympathy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imitation</span> Behaviour in which an individual observes and replicates anothers behaviour

Imitation is a behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. Imitation is also a form of that leads to the "development of traditions, and ultimately our culture. It allows for the transfer of information between individuals and down generations without the need for genetic inheritance." The word imitation can be applied in many contexts, ranging from animal training to politics. The term generally refers to conscious behavior; subconscious imitation is termed mirroring.

Sympathy is the perception of, understanding of, and reaction to the distress or need of another life form.

A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an organism acts and when the organism observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Mirror neurons are not always physiologically distinct from other types of neurons in the brain; their main differentiating factor is their response patterns. By this definition, such neurons have been directly observed in humans and primate species, and in birds.

Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, friendship, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA), also called behavioral engineering, is a psychological intervention that applies approaches based upon the principles of respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior of social significance. It is the applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior.

Mind-blindness, mindblindness or mind blindness is a theory initially proposed in 1990 that claims that all autistic people have a lack or developmental delay of theory of mind (ToM), meaning they are unable to attribute mental states to others. According to the theory, a lack of ToM is considered equivalent to a lack of both cognitive and affective empathy. In the context of the theory, mind-blindness implies being unable to predict behavior and attribute mental states including beliefs, desires, emotions, or intentions of other people. The mind-blindness theory asserts that children who delay in this development will often develop autism.

The empathising–systemising (E–S) theory is a theory on the psychological basis of autism and male–female neurological differences originally put forward by English clinical psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen. It classifies individuals based on abilities in empathic thinking (E) and systematic thinking (S). It measures skills using an Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemising Quotient (SQ) and attempts to explain the social and communication symptoms in autism spectrum disorders as deficits and delays in empathy combined with intact or superior systemising.

The theory-theory is a scientific theory relating to the human development of understanding about the outside world. This theory asserts that individuals hold a basic or 'naïve' theory of psychology to infer the mental states of others, such as their beliefs, desires or emotions. This information is used to understand the intentions behind that person's actions or predict future behavior. The term 'perspective taking' is sometimes used to describe how one makes inferences about another person's inner state using theoretical knowledge about the other's situation.

Emotional responsivity is the ability to acknowledge an affective stimuli by exhibiting emotion. It is a sharp change of emotion according to a person's emotional state. Increased emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating more response to a stimulus. Reduced emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating less response to a stimulus. Any response exhibited after exposure to the stimulus, whether it is appropriate or not, would be considered as an emotional response. Although emotional responsivity applies to nonclinical populations, it is more typically associated with individuals with schizophrenia and autism.

Nelson Cowan is the Curators' Distinguished Professor of Psychological Sciences at the University of Missouri. He specializes in working memory, the small amount of information held in mind and used for language processing and various kinds of problem solving. To overcome conceptual difficulties that arise for models of information processing in which different functions occur in separate boxes, Cowan proposed a more organically organized "embedded processes" model. Within it, representations held in working memory comprise an activated subset of the representations held in long-term memory, with a smaller subset held in a more integrated form in the current focus of attention. Other work has been on the developmental growth of working memory capacity and the scientific method. His work, funded by the National Institutes of Health since 1984, has been cited over 41,000 times according to Google Scholar. The work has resulted in over 250 peer-reviewed articles, over 60 book chapters, 2 sole-authored books, and 4 edited volumes.

In psychology, empathic accuracy is a measure of how accurately one person can infer the thoughts and feelings of another person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Embodied cognition</span> Interdisciplinary theory

Embodied cognition is the concept suggesting that many features of cognition are shaped by the state and capacities of the organism. The cognitive features include a wide spectrum of cognitive functions, such as perception biases, memory recall, comprehension and high-level mental constructs and performance on various cognitive tasks. The bodily aspects involve the motor system, the perceptual system, the bodily interactions with the environment (situatedness), and the assumptions about the world built the functional structure of organism's brain and body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attentional control</span> Individuals capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore

Attentional control, colloquially referred to as concentration, refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore. It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms, attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex, attentional control and attentional shifting are thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory.

Social emotions are emotions that depend upon the thoughts, feelings or actions of other people, "as experienced, recalled, anticipated or imagined at first hand". Examples are embarrassment, guilt, shame, jealousy, envy, elevation, empathy, and pride. In contrast, basic emotions such as happiness and sadness only require the awareness of one's own physical state. Therefore, the development of social emotions is tightly linked with the development of social cognition, the ability to imagine other people's mental states, which generally develops in adolescence. Studies have found that children as young as 2 to 3 years of age can express emotions resembling guilt and remorse. However, while five-year-old children are able to imagine situations in which basic emotions would be felt, the ability to describe situations in which social emotions might be experienced does not appear until seven years of age.

Role-taking theory is the social-psychological concept that one of the most important factors in facilitating social cognition in children is the growing ability to understand others’ feelings and perspectives, an ability that emerges as a result of general cognitive growth. Part of this process requires that children come to realize that others’ views may differ from their own. Role-taking ability involves understanding the cognitive and affective aspects of another person's point of view, and differs from perceptual perspective taking, which is the ability to recognize another person's visual point of view of the environment. Furthermore, albeit some mixed evidence on the issue, role taking and perceptual perspective taking seem to be functionally and developmentally independent of each other.

Empathy quotient (EQ) is a psychological self-report measure of empathy developed by Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright at the Autism Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. EQ is based on a definition of empathy that includes cognition and affect.

Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among males and females. Among biological factors, hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities, the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities, social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Double empathy problem</span> Psychological theory regarding individuals on the autism spectrum

The theory of the double empathy problem is a psychological and sociological theory first coined in 2012 by Damian Milton, an autistic autism researcher. This theory proposes that many of the difficulties autistic individuals face when socializing with non-autistic individuals are due, in part, to a lack of mutual understanding between the two groups, meaning that most autistic people struggle to understand and empathize with non-autistic people, whereas most non-autistic people also struggle to understand and empathize with autistic people. This lack of understanding may stem from bidirectional differences in communication style, social-cognitive characteristics, and experiences between autistic and non-autistic individuals, but not necessarily an inherent deficiency. Recent studies have shown that most autistic individuals are able to socialize, communicate effectively, empathize well, and display social reciprocity with most other autistic individuals. This theory and subsequent findings challenge the commonly held belief that the social skills of autistic individuals are inherently impaired, as well as the theory of "mind-blindness" proposed by prominent autism researcher Simon Baron-Cohen in the mid-1980s, which suggested that empathy and theory of mind are universally impaired in autistic individuals.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Galinsky AD, Maddux WW, Gilin D, White JB (April 2008). "Why it pays to get inside the head of your opponent: the differential effects of perspective taking and empathy in negotiations". Psychological Science. 19 (4): 378–84. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02096.x. PMID   18399891. S2CID   34508802.
  2. 1 2 3 4 PiagetJ, Inhelder B, Langdon FJ, Lunzer JL (1967). The child's conception of space. New York. ISBN   978-0393004083. OCLC   444733.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. 1 2 3 Todd AR, Bodenhausen GV, Richeson JA, Galinsky AD (June 2011). "Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 100 (6): 1027–42. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.470.8388 . doi:10.1037/a0022308. PMID   21381852.
  4. 1 2 Grant AM, Berry JW (2011). "The Necessity of Others is the Mother of Invention: Intrinsic and Prosocial Motivations, Perspective Taking, and Creativity". The Academy of Management Journal. 54 (1): 73–96. doi:10.5465/amj.2011.59215085. JSTOR   29780276. S2CID   4526418.
  5. 1 2 3 Bräuer J, Call J, Tomasello M (2004). "Visual perspective taking in dogs (Canis familiaris) in the presence of barriers". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 88 (3–4): 299–317. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.03.004.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Flavell JH (1977). "The development of knowledge about visual perception". Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. 25: 43–76. PMID   753993.
  7. 1 2 Nilsen ES, Fecica AM (2011-03-01). "A model of communicative perspective-taking for typical and atypical populations of children". Developmental Review. 31 (1): 55–78. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.07.001.
  8. 1 2 Marton I, Wiener J, Rogers M, Moore C, Tannock R (January 2009). "Empathy and social perspective taking in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 37 (1): 107–18. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9262-4. PMID   18712471. S2CID   32318195.
  9. 1 2 Reed T, Peterson C (December 1990). "A comparative study of autistic subjects' performance at two levels of visual and cognitive perspective taking". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 20 (4): 555–67. doi:10.1007/BF02216060. PMID   2279973. S2CID   31553257.
  10. 1 2 3 Schurz M, Aichhorn M, Martin A, Perner J (2013). "Common brain areas engaged in false belief reasoning and visual perspective taking: a meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 7: 712. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00712 . PMC   3814428 . PMID   24198773.
  11. 1 2 Harwood MD, Farrar MJ (2006-06-01). "Conflicting emotions: The connection between affective perspective taking and theory of mind". British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 24 (2): 401–418. doi:10.1348/026151005X50302. ISSN   2044-835X.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Davis MH (1983). "Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 44 (1): 113–126. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113. hdl: 10983/25968 .
  13. ↑ Gerace A, Day A, Casey S, Mohr P (2013). "An exploratory investigation of the process of perspective taking in interpersonal situations". Journal of Relationships Research. 4: e6, 1–12. doi: 10.1017/jrr.2013.6 . hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30055549 .
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Marvin RS, Greenberg MT, Mossler DG (1976). "The Early Development of Conceptual Perspective Taking: Distinguishing among Multiple Perspectives". Child Development. 47 (2): 511–514. doi:10.2307/1128810. JSTOR   1128810.
  15. ↑ Korkmaz B (2011-05-01). "Theory of Mind and Neurodevelopmental Disorders of Childhood". Pediatric Research. 69 (5 Part 2): 101R–108R. doi: 10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212c177 . PMID   21289541. S2CID   2675335.
  16. 1 2 3 Charlop-Christy MH, Daneshvar S (2003). "Using Video Modeling to Teach Perspective Taking to Children with Autism". Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 5 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1177/10983007030050010101. S2CID   144952720.
  17. ↑ Bryant BK (1982). "An Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents". Child Development. 53 (2): 413–425. doi:10.2307/1128984. JSTOR   1128984. S2CID   144842891.
  18. ↑ Radzvilavicius AL, Stewart AJ, Plotkin JB (April 2019). "Evolution of empathetic moral evaluation". eLife. 8: e44269. doi: 10.7554/eLife.44269 . PMC   6488294 . PMID   30964002.
  19. 1 2 3 Flavell JH, Flavell EF, Green FL, Wilcox SA (1980). "Young children's knowledge about visual perception: Effect of observer's distance from target on perceptual clarity of target". Developmental Psychology. 16 (1): 10–12. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.16.1.10.
  20. ↑ Newcombe N, Huttenlocher J (1992). "Children's early ability to solve perspective-taking problems". Developmental Psychology. 28 (4): 635–643. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.635.
  21. ↑ Moll H, Tomasello M (2006-09-01). "Level 1 perspective-taking at 24 months of age". British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 24 (3): 603–613. doi:10.1348/026151005x55370. ISSN   2044-835X.
  22. ↑ Ikeda, Ayaka; Kanakogi, Yasuhiro; Hirai, Masahiro (2022-02-16). "Visual perspective-taking ability in 7- and 12-month-old infants". PLOS ONE. 17 (2): e0263653. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1763653I. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263653 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   8849517 . PMID   35171927.
  23. ↑ Sodian B, Thoermer C, Metz U (March 2007). "Now I see it but you don't: 14-month-olds can represent another person's visual perspective". Developmental Science. 10 (2): 199–204. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00580.x. PMID   17286844.
  24. ↑ Sodian, Beate; Thoermer, Claudia; Metz, Ulrike (2007-03-01). "Now I see it but you don't: 14-month-olds can represent another person's visual perspective". Developmental Science. 10 (2): 199–204. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00580.x. PMID   17286844.
  25. ↑ Ikeda, Ayaka; Kanakogi, Yasuhiro; Hirai, Masahiro (2022-02-16). "Visual perspective-taking ability in 7- and 12-month-old infants". PLOS ONE. 17 (2): e0263653. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1763653I. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263653 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   8849517 . PMID   35171927.
  26. ↑ Moll H, Meltzoff AN (2011-03-01). "How does it look? Level 2 perspective-taking at 36 months of age". Child Development. 82 (2): 661–73. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.385.1451 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01571.x. PMID   21410927.
  27. ↑ Surtees AD, Apperly IA (2012-03-01). "Egocentrism and automatic perspective taking in children and adults". Child Development. 83 (2): 452–60. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1019.1497 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01730.x. PMID   22335247.
  28. ↑ Gzesh SM, Surber CF (1985). "Visual Perspective-Taking Skills in Children". Child Development. 56 (5): 1204–1213. doi:10.2307/1130235. JSTOR   1130235. PMID   4053740.
  29. 1 2 Piaget J (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge. ISBN   9780415254014. OCLC   46944889.
  30. ↑ Selman RL (1971). "Taking Another's Perspective: Role-Taking Development in Early Childhood". Child Development. 42 (6): 1721–1734. doi:10.2307/1127580. JSTOR   1127580.
  31. ↑ Selman RL, Byrne DF (1974). "A Structural-Developmental Analysis of Levels of Role Taking in Middle Childhood". Child Development. 45 (3): 803–806. doi:10.2307/1127850. JSTOR   1127850. PMID   4143833.
  32. ↑ Mossler DG, Marvin RS, Greenberg MT (1976). "Conceptual perspective taking in 2- to 6-year-old children". Developmental Psychology. 12 (1): 85–86. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.12.1.85.
  33. ↑ Kanske P, Böckler A, Trautwein FM, Parianen Lesemann FH, Singer T (2016). "Are strong empathizers better mentalizers? Evidence for independence and interaction between the routes of social cognition". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 11 (9): 1383–1392. doi:10.1093/scan/nsw052. PMC   5015801 . PMID   27129794.
  34. ↑ Mattan, BD, Rotshtein, P, Quinn, KA (2016). "Empathy and visual perspective-taking performance". Cognitive Neuroscience. 7 (1–4): 170–181. doi:10.1080/17588928.2015.1085372. PMID   26745546. S2CID   1396937.
  35. ↑ Tversky, B, Hard, BM (2009). "Embodied and disembodied cognition: Spatial perspective-taking". Cognition. 110 (1): 124–129. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.10.008. PMID   19056081. S2CID   15229389.
  36. ↑ Samson, D, Apperly, IA, Braithwaite, JJ, Andrews, BJ, BodleyScott, SE (2010). "Seeing it their way: Evidence for rapid and involuntary computation of what other people see". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 36 (5): 1255–1266. doi:10.1037/a0018729. PMID   20731512.
  37. ↑ Bertamini, M, Latto, R, Spooner, A (2003). "The venus effect: People's understanding of mirror reflections in paintings". Perception. 32 (5): 593–599. doi:10.1068/p3418. PMID   12854645. S2CID   33410814.
  38. ↑ Barraclough DJ, Conroy ML, Lee D (April 2004). "Prefrontal cortex and decision making in a mixed-strategy game". Nature Neuroscience. 7 (4): 404–10. doi:10.1038/nn1209. PMID   15004564. S2CID   323396.
  39. ↑ Cavanna AE, Trimble MR (March 2006). "The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates". Brain. 129 (Pt 3): 564–83. doi: 10.1093/brain/awl004 . PMID   16399806.
  40. ↑ Gottwald B, Mihajlovic Z, Wilde B, Mehdorn HM (2003-01-01). "Does the cerebellum contribute to specific aspects of attention?". Neuropsychologia. 41 (11): 1452–60. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(03)00090-3. PMID   12849763. S2CID   37941321.
  41. 1 2 Ruby P, Decety J (June 2003). "What you believe versus what you think they believe: a neuroimaging study of conceptual perspective-taking". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 17 (11): 2475–80. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02673.x. PMID   12814380. S2CID   16125688.
  42. 1 2 Ruby P, Decety J (May 2001). "Effect of subjective perspective taking during simulation of action: a PET investigation of agency". Nature Neuroscience. 4 (5): 546–50. doi:10.1038/87510. PMID   11319565. S2CID   3116452.
  43. ↑ Baron-Cohen S (September 1988). "Social and pragmatic deficits in autism: cognitive or affective?". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 18 (3): 379–402. doi:10.1007/bf02212194. PMID   3049519. S2CID   2050249.
  44. ↑ LeBlanc LA, Coates AM, Daneshvar S, Charlop-Christy MH, Morris C, Lancaster BM (2003). "Using video modeling and reinforcement to teach perspective-taking skills to children with autism". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 36 (2): 253–7. doi:10.1901/jaba.2003.36-253. PMC   1284438 . PMID   12858990.
  45. ↑ Chopik WJ, O'Brien E, Konrath SH (2017-01-01). "Differences in Empathic Concern and Perspective Taking Across 63 Countries". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 48 (1): 23–38. doi:10.1177/0022022116673910. hdl: 1805/14139 . ISSN   0022-0221. S2CID   149314942.
  46. 1 2 3 Batson CD, Early S, Salvarani G (2016-07-02). "Perspective Taking: Imagining How Another Feels Versus Imaging How You Would Feel". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 23 (7): 751–758. doi:10.1177/0146167297237008. S2CID   145333456.
  47. ↑ Vaish A, Carpenter M, Tomasello M (March 2009). "Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers". Developmental Psychology. 45 (2): 534–43. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.215.3105 . doi:10.1037/a0014322. PMID   19271837.
  48. ↑ Stewart RB, Marvin RS (1984). "Sibling Relations: The Role of Conceptual Perspective-Taking in the Ontogeny of Sibling Caregiving". Child Development. 55 (4): 1322–1332. doi:10.2307/1130002. JSTOR   1130002.
  49. ↑ Hoever IJ, van Knippenberg D, van Ginkel WP, Barkema HG (September 2012). "Fostering team creativity: perspective taking as key to unlocking diversity's potential". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 97 (5): 982–96. doi:10.1037/a0029159. PMID   22774764. S2CID   23615180.
  50. 1 2 Galinsky AD, Moskowitz GB (2000). "Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 78 (4): 708–724. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708. PMID   10794375.
  51. ↑ Vescio TK, Sechrist GB, Paolucci MP (2003-07-01). "Perspective taking and prejudice reduction: the mediational role of empathy arousal and situational attributions". European Journal of Social Psychology. 33 (4): 455–472. doi:10.1002/ejsp.163. ISSN   1099-0992.
  52. ↑ Tjosvold D, Johnson DW (1977). "Effects of controversy on cognitive perspective taking". Journal of Educational Psychology. 69 (6): 679–685. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.69.6.679.
  53. ↑ Skorinko JL, Sinclair S, Conklin L (2012-04-01). "Perspective Taking Shapes the Impact of Significant-other Representations". Self and Identity. 11 (2): 170–184. doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.517986. ISSN   1529-8868. S2CID   145620139.
  54. ↑ Galinsky AD, Wang CS, Ku G (August 2008). "Perspective-takers behave more stereotypically". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 95 (2): 404–19. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.2.404. PMID   18665710.
  55. 1 2 Amici F, Aureli F, Visalberghi E, Call J (November 2009). "Spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) follow gaze around barriers: evidence for perspective taking?". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 123 (4): 368–74. doi:10.1037/a0017079. PMID   19929105. S2CID   14267790.
  56. ↑ Anderson JR, Montant M, Schmitt D (August 1996). "Rhesus monkeys fail to use gaze direction as an experimenter-given cue in an object-choice task". Behavioural Processes. 37 (1): 47–55. doi:10.1016/0376-6357(95)00074-7. PMID   24897158. S2CID   19504558.
  57. ↑ Agnetta B, Hare B, Tomasello M (2000-12-01). "Cues to food location that domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) of different ages do and do not use". Animal Cognition. 3 (2): 107–112. doi:10.1007/s100710000070. ISSN   1435-9448. S2CID   24594183.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.