Rajadhiraja I (994 CE - 1052 CE) was a Chola emperor, as the successor of his father, Rajendra I. He was the only Chola emperor who was killed while leading his army in war, and although he had a short reign, he helped his father conquer several territories as well as to maintain the Chola authority over most of Sri Lanka, Eastern Chalukya and Kalinga, among others. He also established imperial relations with overseas allies despite a series of revolts in the territory.
Rajadhiraja Chola proved capable of maintaining the vast and expansive empire with territories even outside the shores of India. Records also show that the king was a skilled commander on the battlefield, leading his soldiers from the front lines. He earned the title Jayamkonda Solan (The Victorious Cholan) after numerous victories. Towards the end of his reign, he sacked the Western Chalukyan capital Kalyanapuram and assumed the title Kalyanapuramkonda Chola and performed a Virabhisheka (anointment of heroes) under the name Vijaya Rajendra Cholan (the victorious Rajendra Cholan).[2]
Rajadhiraja Chola was made co-regent in 1018, when he was only 24.[3] From that day onward, he and his father, Rajendra I, ruled together. From the inscriptions of Rajadhiraja it is evident that Rajadhiraja ruled in full regal status in the lifetime of his father. Rajadhiraja was at the forefront of most of his father's military campaigns.
Map of the Chola Empire under Rajadhiraja I (c. 1045 C.E.)
The Buddhist text Mahavamsa shows that the years following the defeat and deportation of the Sinhalese king Mahinda V by Rajendra in 1017 CE were filled with revolt and anarchy due uprisings by the Sinhalese subjects against the reign of the Chola invaders. Mahinda was captured and transported to the Chola country as prisoner where he died 12 years later. Mahinda's son Kassapa had formed the resistance against the Chola occupiers and the revolts were centered on Kassapa.[3]
Kassapa managed to face off the almost 95,000 strong Chola army for over six months and push them northwards from the Rohana area in southern Sri Lanka he then crowned himself Vikramabahu in 1029 C.E.[3] Cholas never intended to subjugate the entire island of Sri Lanka and only occupied the whole island for a period of about 10 years. Sinhalese resistance was assisted by various Pandyan princes against their common enemy. Pandyas had a very close political as well as marital relationship with the Sinhalese.
During Rajadhiraja's reign this became very acute as Vikramabahu launched an all out attack on the Tamil armies to expel them from the island. He was assisted by a Pandya prince Vikarama Pandya and Jagatpala, a prince from the distant Kanauj in North India. Rajadhiraja's forces battled and killed these princes.[4]
The version of the Mahavamsa has to be taken in the right perspective in that it states itself to be a Buddhist chronicle and its point of view is only supposed to favour Buddhist subjects. We cannot expect it to speak in very complimentary terms about non-Buddhist kings. In any case, at least in war, the Cholas were known to be very uncompromising with their enemies and believed in eliminating them rather than setting them free. whether it was the "Chalukyas", "Pandyas" or the "Sinhalese kings"... their treatment was the same, which the Mahavamsa chroniclers found inhuman.
The Chola provinces in Lanka were a separate administrative division of the empire. The deep southern half was however a Sinhalese stronghold in perpetual conflict with the Cholas. Prince Kitti, son of Vikramabahu became Vijayabahu in 1058 CE and took over the leadership of the resistance. The generals of Cholas executed the captured Lankan generals along with their family members.[5]
Continuing Chalukya Wars
Rajadhiraja, eager to subdue the rising power of the Western Chalukyas and to restore Chola influence with the Eastern Chalukyas in Vengi, personally led an expedition into the Telugu country in 1046 CE.[6] He defeated the Western Chalukya forces in a battle at Dannada on the river Krishna and set fire to their fort.[7] This expedition was followed by number of raids into the Chalukya country by the Chola army in which they captured several generals and feudatories of Chalukya, demolished the Chalukya palace at Kampali. The victorious Chola forces crossed the Krishna river and erected a victory pillar at a place called Yetagiri.[6][7] After more fighting, Kalyani, the capital of Chalukya, which is identified as Kalyan or Basavakalyan in Bidar was sacked.[6] Cholas also placed a victory pillar in Kolhapur or Kollapuram in Maharashtra.The victorious Rajadhiraja entered the capital of the vanquished Chalukyas and his coronation was performed at 'Kalyanapura', subsequent to which he assumed the title Vijayarajendra.[7][8][9]Someshvara I was banished to places like Rodda, Kadambalige and Kogali 1000 territories in the Nolambavadi areas[**].
In 1050 CE Chalukya king Someshvara reneged on his payment of tribute to his Chola overlords and usurped the Chalukya throne from the Chola viceroy in Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan).[7] He also sent an expedition to Vengi in order to re-inforce Western Chalukyan hegemony over the Eastern Chalukyas, whom they always regarded as their dominions. It is also speculated that Someshvara I 'may' have captured Kanchi and Kalinga. However, according to Nilakanta Sastri and Majumdar, these are baseless claims because Someshvara I had as his feudatories the Uchangi Pandyas and the Nolamba Pallavas who had provided shelter to his predecessors Jayasimha-II and Satyashraya. The Nolamba Pallavas pompously held the birudas 'Lord of Kanchi', which may lead one to believe that the feudatories of the Chalukyas were ruling from Kanchi or occupying Kanchipuram, both of which presumptions are false. Also, the Cholas were controlling Kalinga through the Vengi Kings like Vimaladitya and Raja Raja Narendra who were related to the Chola Kings. While Someshvara-I did destabilise Vengi by temporarily displacing Rajaraja Narendra, this act also initially disturbed Chola connections with Kalinga. This however, was short-lived for immediately Rajadhiraja-I set off for war against Someshvara-I and that too not at Vengi or Kalinga but by the Chalukya capital itself. But that was after thoroughly preparing himself for war before which he undertook in 1052, the task of anointing his younger brother Rajendra Chola II as co-regent in preference to his own sons. The latter seems to have ascended the throne in 12th for he has the title Rajakesari from then on. When these tasks were completed, in 1054 Rajadhiraja invaded the Chalukyan territory[**].
Rajadhiraja invaded Rattamandalam (southern Karnataka) and immediately seized many of the southern parts of Chalukyan territory like Uchangi, Nulambavadi, Kadambalige, Kogali etc. These developments shook Someshvara-I, who had given himself the title of Trailokyamalla after installing his puppet in Vengi and he had to rush back to save his own kingdom and he had no option but to march against the marauding Chola armies. The two armies met at a place called Koppam on the banks of the Krishna River[**].
Rajadhiraja's inscriptions begin with the introduction tingaler-taru.[10] The following is an inscription from the Svetaranyesvara temple in Tiruvenkadu, a few miles from Vaitheeswaran temple. It mentions the king's father, i.e., emperor Rajendra I
A record in the 30th year of the reign of Rajakesari Varma alias Udaiyar Rajadhiraja Deva (I)Records that one Ambalan Seyyavayar set up the image of Picchadevar (Bhikshatana), gave lands for its requirements, presented gold and silver ornaments, opened a charity house and provided for its maintenance. The same person is said to have obtained lands for the temple from the king's father (Rajendra I), who was pleased to take Purvadesam, Ganga and Kadaram.[11][12]
There is another inscription of the king his 29th regnal year from the Manimangalam village about donation of land which speaks on a detailed way his military achievements. Inscription goes on to describe the following:
a. Appointment of his 7 relatives as governors to Chera, Chalukya, Pandya, Ganga, Ceylon, Pallava and Kanyakubja (Kannauj – UP).
b. Victorious war against ahavamalla, vikki, vijayaditya who are Someswarar I, Vikramaditya VI and Vijayaditya respectively of Western Chalukya and the burning of Kollipakai.
c. His exploits at Ceylon where he attacked its four kings (Vikramabahu, Veera Salamegan, Vikrama Pandya and Srivallabha madanaraja) . Out of four, vira salamegan had initially ruled over Kannauj. Rajadhiraja while sacking Ceylon had seized his elder sister and his wife and also went on to cut the nose of his mother.
d. On his second raid to chalukyan kingdom, he went on to burn Kampili and he died on the battle field at Kopam. There is one inscription by Western Chalukya which was inscribed in Annigere which talks of a wicked chozha who had abandoned his religious practices and burned Jaina temples and ultimately yielded his head to someswara.[13]
Another inscription of the king from a temple in Chengalpattu district is as follows,
On the west and south bases shrine in Adhipursivara temple.A record of the Chola king Rajakesari Varma alias Udaiyar Rajadhiraja Deva (I). Records in his thirty first year, a sale of land by the assembly of the brahmadeya villages of Sundarasola-chatuvedimangalam and Vanavanmahadevi-chaturvedimangalm. It was purchased by Nagalavvaichchani alias Ariyammai, wife of Prabhakara Bhatta, a resident of Megalapuram in the Arya-desa and a devotee of the temple of Tiruvorriyurudaiaya Mahadeva. The purchased land was given to the matha called Rajendrasolan which was built by that lady. Records also other sales of land to the same lady and for the same purpose, by residents of Ennoor in Navalur-nadu, which was a sub-division of Pularkottam and by the merchants (nagarattaar) of Tiruvorriyur in the years thirty-one and twenty-seven of the same reign.[14]
From an inscription from the 29th year of his reign from the Rajagopala Perumal temple we understand that he defeated several warriors of the Chalukyan army, the most notable being Vikki (Vikramaditya), Vijayadityan and Sangamayan. In addition, it also shows the various kingdoms that acknowledged his supremacy. Here is an excerpt:
...he cut-off on the battle-field the head of Manabharanan,...seized in battle (the Kongu Chera) Vira Kerala whose ankle rings were wide and was pleased to get him trampled down by his furious elephant,...he sent the undaunted king of Venad [back] to the country of Cheras...he captured the salai at Kandalur,...when Ahavamallan became afraid;...when two warriors of great courage Vikki and Vijayadityan...retreated... the tribute paid without remissions by the Villavar (Chera), Minavar (Pandya), the Chalukkyas, Kausalar, Vanganar, Konganar, Sindurar, Pangalar and Andhirar and other kings and the riches collected...were gladly given away to those versed in the four Vedas (i.e to the Brahmins). In order to be famed in the whole world, he followed the path of Manu and performed the Horse-Sacrifice...In the 29th year (of the reign) of this king Rajakesari Varma, alias the lord Sri Rajadhiraja Deva, who was seated on the royal (throne and who had obtained) very great fame (under the name) Jayangonda Cholan, we, the great assembly of Manimangalam, alias Rajachulamani Chaturvedi-mangalam, in Maganur-nadu, (a subdivision) of Chengattu-kottam, (a district) of Jayangonda Chola Mandalam[15]
Here is an excerpt of an inscription from the Chikballapur district of Karnataka. It gives a brief overview of some of the king's exploits while he was still a co-regent of his predecessor (original in Tamil and Grantha alphabet):
In the 32nd year of the reign of Ko Rajakesari Varma alias Sri Rajadhiraja Deva of bright intellect, who...was born to render conspicuous the ancient race of the hot-rayed god (i.e., the Solar Race); who caused his umbrella, planted under the shadow of his father's white umbrella, to cast its shade over the entire kingdom of his father, who conquered with his army Ganga of the prosperous north, Lanka of the south, Makotai of the west and Kadaram of the east; who swayed his scepter over every region; who cut-off on the battle-field the beautiful head which was adorned with large jewels and was never without the golden crown, of Manabharanan, the renowned king of the south (Pandya); who sent the king of Venad to heaven [or back to the Chera country]; who killed the king of Kalingam on the battle-field; who caused to be destroyed the Kandalur Salai on the sea coast; and who acquired great fame under the praiseworthy name of 'Jayangonda Cholan'The officer Vira Vichchadira (Vidyadhara) Muvendavelar...gave for the god Maha Nandiswara Udaya Mahadeva, on the Nandi hill in Kalavara Ndu, a plate of gold weighing by the standard of the city, 2.5 kalanju and 1 manjadi, as an ornament to be worn by the god for as long as the sun and the moon exist.[16]
In the 35th year...Ko Parakesari Varma alias Vijaya Rajendra Deva, who having taken the head of Vira Pandya, the [Kandalur] Salai of the Chera, Lanka and Rattapadi [the Chalukya] Seven and Half Lakh (country), and set up a pillar of victory at Kalliyanapuram, took his seat on the throne of heroes and got himself anointed as 'Vijaya Rajendra'...in the Kuvalala Nadu of Vijaya Rajendra Mandalam.[17]
Sometime after he ascended the throne, he placed Rajendra Chola II as a co-regent. Rajendra Chola II would reign alongside Rajadhiraja until the latter's death after which he ascended the throne.
One of the greatest and bravest warriors in the Chola dynasty and perished alone in a northern battlefield during the Battle of Koppam. Rajadhiraja died atop his elephant, he came to be known as Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died sitting on top of the elephant). From the time he was chosen heir-apparent by his father to the day he died on the battlefield, Rajadhiraja led the life of a warrior king and led many campaigns in person. Rajadhiraja was first and foremost a soldier and his great military talent led to him being chosen as heir-apparent and succeeding his father.
Rajadhiraja employed his uncle and his brothers in important offices of state and constituted them as subordinate rulers of regions of his empire. We know of the title (Trilokyam Udaiyar) rather than the actual name of a queen. His queens do not figure prominently in his records. Apart from Vijaya Rajendra, he took the titles of Virarajendra Varman, Ahavamally Kulantaka and Kalyanapurangondachola. His children seem to have been overlooked in the succession to the Chola throne for a brief time.[citation needed]
Officials
Vira-Vichchadira (Vidyadhara)-Muvendavelan was a prominent military officer of Rajadhiraja. He has made several generous donations to the various temples in Kalavara Nadu, a sub-division of Nigarili-Chola-Mandalam (part of present-day Karnataka) where he was deployed.[16] Vettan Panachanadi-Vānan alias Madurāntaka-tTamil-pperaiyan of Tandāngurai in Vilānādu belonging to the Pandikulasani valanadu of Sola-mandalam was the overseer of the dandanayakas.[18] Santi Kuttan Tiruvalan Tirumud Kunran alias Vijaya Rajendra Acharyan, an actor was in charge of the troupe that were responsible for enacting the Rajarajeswara Natakam (a musical), in the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur.[19][20] Velala Madurantakam alias Dandanayakan Rajadhiraja Ilangovelan was another officer from Nadar, a village of Tiraimur-nadu which was a sub-division of Uyyakondan-valanadu in Sola-mandalam. He has donated 90 sheep to a temple in Tiruvorriyur during the 3rd year of the reign of Rajendra Chola II when the latter was still a co-regent of the king.[21]
Religion
Like his father, he too was a devout of Shaivisim. The Shaiva Siddhanta school of thought was prevalent and the Bhakti poetry of the Nayanars were encouraged and sang in the temples. We have a record dated in the twenty eighth year of the king's reign from the Adhipurisvara temple in Tiruvorriyur which mentions the Tiruttondatogai of Sundarar and the names of the sixty three Nayanars.[22]
Notes
1 2 Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp.46–49. ISBN978-9-38060-734-4.
↑ Irāmaccantiran̲ Nākacāmi. Gangaikondacholapuram. State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, 1970 - Gangaikondacholapuram (India) - 61 pages. p.8.
1 2 3 See Sastri, KAN, A History of South India, p165
1 2 3 4 See Sastri, KAN, A History of South India, p168
↑ Inscriptions in the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram records that a Dwarapala sculpture from Kalyanapura was brought to the temple by Rajadhiraja after his capture of the capital of the Chalukyas. See P.V. Jagadisa Ayyar, p 353
↑ P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar. South Indian Shrines: Illustrated. Asian Educational Services, 1982 - Hindu shrines - 638 pages. p.53.
↑ T. V. Mahalingam. A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District. Indian Council of Historical Research, 1992. p.565.
↑ Archaeological Society of South India (1955). Transactions, Volumes 1-5. p.115.
↑ V. Rangacharya (1985). A Topographical List of Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Volume I, with Notes and References. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. p.434.
↑ The Chālukyas of Kalyāṇa and the Kalachuris, page 157
1 2 Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 202
↑ Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 42
↑ Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 35
Rajaraja I, also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests of Southern India and parts of Sri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean.
Kulottunga I also spelt Kulothunga, born Rajendra Chalukya, was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 to 1122 succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya monarch from 1061 to 1118, succeeding his father Rajaraja Narendra. He is related to the Chola dynasty through his mother's side and the Eastern Chalukyas through his father's side. His mother, Ammangaidevi, was a Chola princess and the daughter of emperor Rajendra I. His father was king Rajaraja Narendra of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty who was the nephew of Rajendra and maternal grandson of Rajaraja I. According to historian Sailendra Nath Sen, his accession marked the beginning of a new era and ushered in a period of internal peace and benevolent administration.
Jatavarman Sundara I, also known as Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan, was a emperor of the Pandyan dynasty who ruled regions of Tamilakkam, Northern Sri Lanka and Southern Andhra between 1250–1268 CE. He is remembered for his patronage of the arts and tamil architecture, along with refurbishment and decoration of many Kovils (temple) in the Tamil continent. He oversaw a massive economic growth of the Pandyan empire. On the eve of his death in 1268 CE, the second Pandyan empire's power and territorial extent had risen to its zenith till Nellore and Kadapa by defeating Telugu Chola ruler Vijaya Gandagopala alias Manumasiddhi II of Nellore Cholas and Ganapatideva of Kakatiyas.
Rajendra I, often referred to as Rajendra the Great, Gangaikonda Cholan, and Kadaram Kondan, was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1014 and 1044 CE. He was born in Thanjavur to Rajaraja I and his queen Vanathi and assumed royal power as co-regent with his father in 1012 until his father died in 1014, when Rajendra ascended to the Chola throne. During his reign, the Chola Empire reached its zenith in the Indian subcontinent; it extended its reach via trade and conquest across the Indian Ocean, making Rajendra one of only a few Indian monarchs who conquered territory beyond South Asia.
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty originating from southern India. At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya empire. The Chola empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE.
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Rajendra II often referred to as Rajendradeva Chola was a Chola emperor who reigned from 1052 CE to 1064 CE. Rajendra II succeeded his brother Rajadhiraja I after his death at the Battle of Koppam. Rajendra had served as a Co-regent under his brother from 1044 CE to 1052 CE. When he acceded the throne, the Chola Empire was at its peak stretching from Southern India to Vengai(Bengal) to parts of Southeast Asia. Rajendra has maintained the territories of his predecessor. During his reign, the Chola Empire was prosperous and had a large influence in trade throughout the Indian Ocean.
Virarajendra was a Chola emperor, who spent a major part of his life as a subordinate to two of his elder brothers Rajadhiraja I and Rajendra II, he is the son of Rajendra I. During his early reign he granted the maintenance of a school to study the Vedas, Sastras and grammar; a hostel was provided for the students. A hospital named Virasolan was also provided by him for the sick people. The famous grammatical work in Tamil, Virasoliyam was written by Buddhamitra during his reign.
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The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval Indian, thalassocratic empire that was established by the Chola dynasty that rose to prominence during the middle of the ninth century and united southern India under their rule.
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Rajaraja II was a Chola emperor who reigned from 1150 to 1173. He was made his heir apparent and Co-Regent in 1146 and so the inscriptions of Rajaraja II count his reign from 1146. Rajaraja's reign began to show signs of the coming end of the dynasty.
Rajadhiraja Chola II reigned as the Chola emperor succeeding Rajaraja Chola II. Rajaraja Chola II chose Rajadhiraja II, a maternal grandson of Vikrama Chola Because he had no sons. Rajadhiraja II's father was Sangama chola who was the descendant of Virarajendra chola. Hence a century later the real Chola heir ascended the chola throne.
Kulothunga III was a Chola emperor who ruled from 1178 to 1218 CE, after succeeding his elder brother Rajadhiraja II. Kulothunga Chola III gained success in war against his traditional foes. He gained victories in war against the Hoysalas, Pandyas of Madurai, Cheras of Venad, the Sinhalese kings of Polonnaruwa, as well as the Telugu Cholas of Velanadu and Nellore. He also restored Chola control over Karur, which were ruled by the Adigaman chiefs as vassals of the Cholas. He drove out the Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II who had made inroads in the Gangavadi and adjoining areas of Tagadur in Kongu country in an effort expand their territory. However, during the last two years of his reign, he lost in war to the resurgent Pandyas, heralded a period of steady decline and ultimately, demise of the Cholas by 1280 CE. Kulottunga III had alliances with the Hoysalas. The Hoysala king Veera Ballala married a Chola queen called Cholamahadevi and gave his daughter Somaladevi in marriage to Kulottunga III.
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The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannada dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in the modern Bidar District of Karnataka state, and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the 6th-century Chalukya dynasty of Badami. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa, Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta dynasty ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani.
The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.
The Battle of Koppam was fought between the Medieval Chola kings Rajadhiraja Chola and Rajendra Chola II with the Chalukya king Someshvara I in 1054, or in 1052 according to Sen. The site of the battle has been identified as Koppal by C.R. Krishnamacharlu and this has been accepted by Sastri and Dr. B.R Gopal. Though the Cholas were successful in the battle, the king and supreme commander, Rajadhiraja I lost his life in the battlefield and was succeeded to the throne by his younger brother, Rajendra Chola II.
References
Scharfe, Hartmut (1989). The state in Indian tradition. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN90-04-09060-6.
Mendis, G. C. (1975). The early history of Ceylon, and its relations with India and other foreign countries. New York: AMS Press. ISBN0-404-54851-2.
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
South Indian shrines: illustrated By P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar
The Chālukyas of Kalyāṇa and the Kalachuris By Balakrishnan Raja Gopal
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