Years active | 1978 Onwards |
---|---|
Country | Mainland China |
Major figures | Liu Xinwu Zhang Chengzhi |
Influences |
|
Scar literature | |
---|---|
Traditional Chinese | 傷痕文學 |
Simplified Chinese | 伤痕文学 |
Hanyu Pinyin | Shānghén wénxué |
Scar literature or literature of the wounded (Chinese :伤痕文学; pinyin :shānghén wénxué) is a genre of Chinese literature which emerged in the late 1970s during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period,soon after the death of Mao Zedong,portraying the sufferings of cadres and intellectuals during the experiences of the Cultural Revolution and the rule of the Gang of Four. [1]
During the Boluan Fanzheng period,the growth of scar literature corresponded with the Beijing Spring,a period of greater openness in Chinese society;scar literature has even been described as a "second Hundred Flowers Movement". [2] Though scar literature focuses on trauma and oppression,and has been described as largely negative,love and faith remained its major themes;its practitioners were typically not opposed to Communism,but on the converse retained faith in the ability of the Party to rectify past tragedies,and "embraced love as a key to solving social problems". [3] Regardless,though their writing was hailed as marking a revival of the tradition of socialist realism in the arts,it in fact represented a break from that tradition,as it was no longer subject to party control,and was not under an obligation to serve the purpose of political education for the masses. [4]
Unlike the mass revolutionary art of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,scar literature adopted a more individualist and market-driven literary style. [5]
The first exemplar of the genre is generally agreed to be Lu Xinhua's 1978 story "Scar",which attacked official hypocrisy and corruption. [6] Liu Xinwu's 1977 short story "The Class Monitor" (班主任) has also been described as the pioneer of scar literature,though this assessment is disputed. [7]
Most of the representative authors were in their thirties and forties at the time;they worked as salaried writers and editors,and published their works in state-sponsored literary journals. [8] The moral outrage they expressed in their works resonated with the public,contributing to its popularity. [9]
Not all works by authors who lived through the Cultural Revolution can be classified as scar literature. Zhang Chengzhi in particular is notable for his idealism regarding his experiences during the Cultural Revolution;his works such as Black Steed and Rivers of the North have been described as rebuttals to the "negativism of scar literature". [10]
Scar literature did not entirely receive a free pass from the Party establishment;due to its criticisms of the Communist Party and of Mao himself,as well as its exposure of social problems,it came under attack by conservatives as early as 1979. Events such as the trial of Wei Jingsheng signalled writers that there were limits to the open discussion of the past errors of the Party,and after the end of the trial of the Gang of Four,the political climate chilled significantly. [11] Eventually,the government began to crack down on scar literature as part of a wider campaign against "bourgeois liberalism". [12] Deng Xiaoping himself provided major support for the campaign,even though his return to Chinese politics after his earlier disgrace and his political victory over rival Hua Guofeng relied heavily on the repudiation of Maoism inherent in scar literature,and its influence on public opinion. [2] [12] The campaign against scar literature was itself unusual in that,unlike earlier campaigns against liberalism,official criticisms were generally limited to attacks on its content,rather than denunciations of individuals. [13]
Mao Zedong was a Chinese politician,Marxist theorist,military strategist,poet,and revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC). He led the country from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976,while also serving as the chairman of the Chinese Communist Party during that time. His theories,military strategies and policies are known as Maoism.
The Cultural Revolution (CR),formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his death in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. Though it failed to achieve its main objectives,the CR marked the effective return of Mao to the center of power. This came after a period of relative absence for Mao,who had been sidelined by the more moderate Seven Thousand Cadres Conference in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward and the following Great Chinese Famine,which occurred while he was still chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
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Jiang Qing,also known as Madame Mao,was a Chinese communist revolutionary,actress,and major political figure during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong,the Chairman of the Communist Party and Paramount leader of China. She used the stage name Lan Ping (藍蘋) during her acting career,and was known by many other names. Jiang was best known for playing a major role in the Cultural Revolution and for forming the radical political alliance known as the "Gang of Four".
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The Socialist Education Movement,also known as the Four Cleanups Movement was a 1963–1965 movement launched by Mao Zedong in the People's Republic of China. Mao sought to remove reactionary elements within the bureaucracy of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),saying that "governance is also a process of socialist education."
Chen Boda,was a Chinese Communist journalist,professor and political theorist who rose to power as the chief interpreter of Maoism in the first 20 years of the People's Republic of China. Chen became a close associate of Mao Zedong in Yan'an,during the late 1930s,drafting speeches and theoretical essays and directing propaganda.
Liu Xinwu is a Chinese author,and one of the earliest proponents of the post-Maoist wave of Chinese literature.
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The 8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was in session from 1956 to 1969. It was preceded by the 7th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. It held 12 plenary sessions in this period of 13 years. It was the longest serving central committee ever held by the Communist Party.
People's Literature is the oldest continuously published literary magazine in China,and the first literary magazine published in Communist China. Established in 1949,the magazine is published by the People's Literature Publishing House and issued by the Chinese Writers Association. Its head office is located at 166 Chaonei Ave,Beijing. Its current director is Pan Kaixiong (潘凯雄) and its current editor-in-chief is Guan Shiguang (管士光).
The Daoxian massacre,or Dao County massacre,was a massacre which took place during the Cultural Revolution in Dao County,Hunan as well as ten other nearby counties and cities. From August 13 to October 17,1967,a total of 7,696 people were killed while 1,397 people were forced to commit suicide. An additional 2,146 people were permanently injured and disabled. Most of the victims were labelled as "class enemies",belonging to the Five Black Categories,while at least 14,000 people participated in the massacre. The Daoxian massacre had a direct impact on the Shaoyang County Massacre in 1968.
The Shadian incident was an uprising of Muslim Hui people during the Chinese Cultural Revolution which ended in a military-led killing. The killings took place in seven villages of Yunnan Province,especially at the Shadian Town of Gejiu City,in July and August 1975;most sources estimate the number of the deaths around 1,600,including 300 children,in addition to the destruction of 4,400 homes.
Liu Shaoqi was a Chinese revolutionary and politician. He was Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee from 1954 to 1959,first Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1956 to 1966 and Chairman of the People's Republic of China,the head of state,from 1959 to 1968,during which he implemented policies of economic reconstruction in China. For 15 years,Liu held high positions in Chinese leadership,behind only Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai. Although originally considered as a successor to Mao,from 1966 onward,Liu was criticized and then purged by Mao. Liu was arrested and imprisoned in 1967. He was forced out of public life and was labelled the "commander of China's bourgeoisie headquarters",China's foremost "capitalist-roader",and a traitor to the revolution. He died in prison in 1969 due to complications from diabetes.
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The Inner Mongolia incident,or the Inner Mongolia People's Revolutionary Party purge incident,was a massive political purge which occurred during the Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia. The purge was supported by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and was led by Teng Haiqing,a lieutenant general of the People's Liberation Army. It took place from 1967 to 1969 during which over a million people were categorized as members of the already-dissolved Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (PRP),while lynching and direct massacre resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands,most of whom were Mongols.
The Zhao Jianmin Spy Case,or Zhao Jianmin Wrong Case,was a major fabricated spy case in Yunnan province during the Chinese Cultural Revolution,with more than 1.387 million people implicated and persecuted,which accounted for 6% of the total population in Yunnan at the time. From 1968–1969,more than 17,000 people died in a massacre while 61,000 people were crippled for life;in Kunming alone,1,473 people were killed and 9,661 people were left disabled as a result.
Boluan Fanzheng refers to the period starting with the accession of Deng Xiaoping to paramount leadership in China,replacing Hua Guofeng,who had been Mao Zedong's successor before his death in 1976. During this period,a far-reaching program of reforms was undertaken by Deng and his allies to "correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution",and restore order in the country. The Chinese government and Chinese Communist Party (CCP) gradually dismantled the many distinctly Maoist policies associated with the Cultural Revolution,and rehabilitated millions of people who had been targeted during its decade of turmoil. The start of the Boluan Fanzheng period is regarded as an inflection point in Chinese history,with its cultural adjustments later proven to be the bedrock upon which the parallel economic reform and opening up could take place. As such,aspects of market capitalism were successfully introduced to the Chinese economy,foreshadowing a period of growth often characterized as one of the most impressive economic achievements in history.
The Guangdong Cultural Revolution Massacre was a series of massacres that took place in Guangdong Province of China during the Cultural Revolution. There were 80 counties in Guangdong during the Cultural Revolution,and according to the 57 county annals which became available during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period,massacres occurred in 28 of the counties with six counties recording a death toll of over 1,000—the average death toll among all the 28 counties was 278. The massacre in Yangjiang was the most serious,with over 2,600 deaths in Yangchun County alone. In addition,massacres also occurred in some cities of Guangdong;in the capital city Guangzhou,for example,the massacre targeting the prisoners of Laogai resulted in the deaths of at least 187–197 people within a week of August 1967.