Separation anxiety in dogs

Last updated
Blue brindle dog looking on a fence.jpg

Separation anxiety in dogs describes a condition in which a dog exhibits distress and behavior problems when separated from its handler. Separation anxiety typically manifests within minutes of departure of the handler. [1] It is not fully understood why some dogs suffer from separation anxiety and others do not. [2] The diagnosis process often leads to a misdiagnosis as it is difficult to differentiate from other medical and behavioral problems. The behavior may be secondary to an underlying medical condition. [3] With chronic stress, impairments to physiological health can manifest. Increased stress in the dog alters hormone levels, thus decreasing natural immunity to various health problems. [4] Separation anxiety can be treated with systematic desensitization and, if necessary, medication. [5] [6] Ignoring or punishing the dog, leaving them to "cry it out" does not solve separation anxiety and can damage the mental health of dogs. [7]

Contents

Signs and symptoms

Dogs suffering from separation anxiety typically exhibit these behaviors:

Cause

The cause of dog separation anxiety is unknown, but may be triggered by:

Diagnosis

It can be difficult to differentiate separation anxiety from other disorders in dogs since there are no specific diagnostic tests available. There is no known genetic component to this disorder; it can occur at any point in the dog's life but has been shown to coincide with times of stress and major life changes.  

Research presented among strays indicated diagnoses of separation anxiety to be 56 percent higher, and in mixed breeds, 67 percent higher. [13] Therefore, the dogs' previous and current living conditions have an impact on the diagnosis, as many of these animals developed separation anxiety due to traumatic experiences.   

Diagnoses are made by examining dogs' behaviour before and during departure, when the owner is absent, and when the owner returns home. It is encouraged by pet professionals to record behavioural responses after departure to increase the probability of an accurate diagnosis.  By observing the dogs behaviour, professionals can exclude external factors that could influence the behaviour that would not have been identifiable without the recording. [14] Repetitive behaviours and autonomic responses such as tachycardia, tachypnea, and trembling may also be identified on a recording in the owners absence. [14] As some of the behaviours presented by the canine could be related to other medical or behavioural problems, behavioural response characteristics must be examined to provide an accurate diagnosis.

Urination and defecation are prominent behavioural response within canines experiencing separation anxiety. Elimination must only occur within one to thirty minutes after companions departure or when the canine is prevented from being near its companion. [13] Destructive behaviour to its environment or itself can also be present immediately after departure of the owner. Behavioural responses such as chewing, digging, and scratching could apply to any personal objects or areas in the environment, but is usually directed towards possible exits (i.e., doors and windows). [13] Vocal responses such as whining, howling, and barking could precede departure and/or begin following departure. [13] This may persist for a longer period in comparison to other behavioural responses presented preceding departure of the owner. In severe cases, excessive vocalization can lead to damage to the dog's voice box, losing the ability to bark or howl for a period. Behaviours need not persist until return of the owner, apart from vocalization, but may be present at arrival. As well, the above behaviours must be correlated with signs of distress and restlessness within the period of time leading to or immediately after the behavioural response. [13]

Common misdiagnoses

As behaviours presented through separation anxiety can be linked to many other behavioural and medical disorders, careful diagnostic criteria must be followed.

As a preventative measure, and to exclude other possible explanations for the behavioural responses, diagnostic testing is performed. A physical examination is performed, and tests relating to the animals age and medical history may be required. In relation to the elimination behaviour, a urinalysis is suggested and a stool sample may be required if it presents as abnormal or the dog is expressing other digestive issues. [15]

Medical problems

  • Urinary incontinence related to medical problems
    • A large number of medical problems can influence canine house soiling, including urinary tract infection, weak sphincter caused by old age, hormone-related problems, bladder stones, diabetes, abnormalities of the genitalia, and neurological problems. [16] It is most common among large breed, spayed female dogs, but it can occur in intact females, male dogs, and cats. [17] Urethral sphincter incompetence is the primary cause of urinary incontinence. [17] It is important to seek veterinary aid if urinary incontinence presents frequently.
  • Medication
    • Medication can affect canine behaviour in relation to elimination, destruction, and vocalization. If negative behavioural patterns persist in relation to these symptoms, it is important to seek veterinary advice. It may be necessary to change or adjust the canine's prescription if it is inducing negative behavioural responses.
  • Incomplete housetraining [18]
    • In the case of house training issues, there is no pattern or correlation within the behaviours, as elimination, destruction, and vocalization frequencies do not change. [18] However, it is more prominent in younger dogs. Behavioural responses related to incomplete housetraining do not exhibit distress or restlessness and the canine is usually not aware that they are participating in a wrongful behaviour.
      Canine participating in destruction of personal items. Shepador Chewer.JPG
      Canine participating in destruction of personal items.
  • Submissive and excitement urination [18]
    • Submissive and excitement-related urination usually presents in puppies and the behaviour reduces with age. Excitement-related urination occurs during greetings or playtime, however urination can occur due to submissive behaviour which can be related to fear and nervousness. [18] In these cases, the dog may change its posture, approaching or fleeing individuals with its head and tail pointed downwards, crouching, and/or rolling over and exposing its belly; presenting submissiveness. [18]
  • Urine and fecal marking [18]
    • Marking can occur under normal circumstances as it is primarily performed as a territorial mechanism towards other animals. However, it is not normal for this behaviour to reoccur in the household or in the absence of a threatening stimuli. A possible explanation behind the inappropriate occurrence of this behaviour could be due to the canine being threatened or exposed to an unsafe environment. As a stress-related response to territory disturbance, alteration, or invasion by another species, dogs can also engage in this behavior. [18]
  • Boredom
    • Lack of attention given to the dog can induce the animal to exhibit behaviours such as elimination (i.e., urinating), destruction (i.e., chewing and/or scratching personal and household items), as well as vocalization (i.e., whine, bark, or howl) in the absence of a stimuli. As this predominantly occurs while the owner is away as a form of entertainment, it can occur during departure or upon arrival, to obtain attention. [19] Behavioural responses initiated due to boredom are more prominent in younger canines and can be correlated with juvenile destruction (i.e., incomplete housetraining).
  • Abuse
    • Behavioural and emotional responses that are consistent with those of separation anxiety can be side-effects of abuse. This is commonly found in rescue or shelter dogs. [20] As abuse side-effects can be misunderstood as separation anxiety, a history of abuse can also contribute to separation anxiety.

Treatment

Dogs suffering from separation anxiety are often "owner addicts." While treatment and management options are available for dogs suffering from separation anxiety, there is no instant cure. However, the disorder can dissipate on its own if the trigger stimulus is removed from its environment or the trigger stimulus is desensitized over a period. The canine may not suffer from separation anxiety on a long-term basis if training, consistent routines, lifestyle changes, or medication is in place. A better prognosis is achieved by providing treatment.

Drug therapy

Dogs can be treated with psychotropic drugs used to treat similar psychological disorders displayed in humans in order to mitigate the behavior related to these disorders, such as anti-depressants or anti-anxiety drugs. These connections between human and animal psychopharmacology can help to explain how similar neurobiology can be among different species. [21] Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, or SSRIs, or tricyclic anti-depressants are used to treat anxious and depressive behavior in animals. One study tracked the effectiveness of clomipramine, a tricyclic anti-depressant, in reducing compulsive behaviors in dogs. Behaviors displayed by these dogs include but are not limited to tail-chasing, shadow-chasing, circling and chewing. The study found that after one month of daily administration of the tricyclic anti-depressant clomipramine, these compulsive behaviors decreased or disappeared in 16 out of 24 dogs. Slight to moderate behavior mitigation was shown in 5 dogs. These results suggest that clomipramine can be beneficial to canines displaying anxiety behaviors. [22]

Anti-depressant treatment

Fluoxetine, an SSRI used by humans under the brand name Prozac, is prescribed to dogs under the brand name Reconcile. A study found that dogs who were being simultaneously treated with Reconcile while undergoing a type of behavior therapy known as behavioral modulation were more successful at mitigating behaviors related to separation anxiety when compared to the control group of dogs receiving only a placebo with behavior modulation treatment. After 8 weeks of treatment, 72% of the dogs given fluoxetine displayed fewer adverse behaviors (e.g., excessive salivation, inappropriate urination/defecation) while only 50% of the control group mitigated these behaviors. [23]

In another study conducted in 2015, dogs expressing symptoms of separation anxiety were given fluoxetine tablets and a standard behavior modification plan for two months. [24] Owner interviews, spatial cognitive bias tests, questionnaires and relations between cognitive bias and drug treatment were all taken into consideration. Results showed that the clinical treatment of fluoxetine seemed to produce a shift in cognitive bias in the canine subjects, emphasizing that pharmacological therapy not only can positively affect behavior, but also an animal's psychological state.

The most common adverse effects were decreased appetite, experienced by 23% of the dogs in the study, and lethargy, experienced by 39% of the dogs in the study. Some canines actually experienced worsening anxiety and aggressive behavior. [25]

In a study using the anti-depressant clomipramine, nine dogs underwent withdrawal after discontinuing treatment. Five of those dogs were successful in overcoming the withdrawal, while four dogs relapsed. Although the study's sample sizes were relatively small, it illuminated one of the many variables regarding psychoactive drug withdrawal. [26] [ failed verification ]

Benzodiazepine treatment

Benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam, are anxiolytic medications. Benzodiazepines are beneficial in the treatment of stimuli-evoking anxiety, or phobias. One study on storm phobias found that 30 out of the 32 canines involved in the study had reductions in anxious behaviors after being treated with alprazolam. However, this study found that the best way to benefit from benzodiazepine treatment is when it is being used in conjunction with behavior modulation treatment and an anti-depressant. [27]

The study found that canines can develop dependence to these types of medications and experience a withdrawal process similar to one experienced by humans. For example, their seizure threshold is lowered and anxiety relapse can occur after stopping benzodiazepine treatment. [28] Similarly to treatment of human anxiety disorders, benzodiazepines are a last resort treatment, due to their addiction potential. [29] Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, or SSRIs, or tricyclic anti-depressants are used to treat anxious and depressive behavior in animals. One study tracked the effectiveness of clomipramine, a tricyclic anti-depressant, in reducing compulsive behaviors in dogs. Behaviors displayed by these dogs include but are not limited to tail-chasing, shadow-chasing, circling and chewing. The study found that after one month of daily administration of the tricyclic anti-depressant clomipramine, these compulsive behaviors decreased or disappeared in 16 out of 24 dogs. Slight to moderate behavior mitigation was shown in 5 dogs. These results suggest that clomipramine can be beneficial to canines displaying anxiety behaviors. [22]

Imepitoin, also known by its brand name Pexion, is a recently developed drug for treating primarily canine epilepsy. Imepitoin is a low-affinity agonist at the benzodiazepine site of the GABAA receptor, meaning it is able to loosely attach itself to the GABA receptor and mimic GABA. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter that is used to counteract glutamate, the excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for eliciting anxious behaviors if levels are excessive, causing long-term anxiety disorders. [30] Because imepitoin is known to have anti-convulsant effects on laboratory rats and is already an anti-epilepsy drug treatment, researchers are curious as to whether or not it could decrease a canine's levels of separation anxiety, as one symptom of separation anxiety in dogs is excessive shaking, primarily in smaller breeds.

One study conducted in 2016 did not test its effects on separation anxiety specifically, but rather investigated its abilities to reduce fear and anxiety-related behaviors. The study was conducted via an online survey completed by the canine participants' owners, including data on the number of how monthly seizures the dogs experienced. [31] Results showed a significant reduction of average seizures per month, but no significant differences in behavior regarding the five anxiety-related measures examined (dog-directed fear, stranger-directed fear, non-social fear, pain sensitivity and separation-related behavior), concluding that imepitoin did not definitively affect anxiety-related behavior in dogs. However, it was noted by researchers conducting the study that the participants' anxiety levels could not have been high enough in the beginning of the study for the dogs to show a significant reduction in anxiety-related behavior.

Another research study in June 2017 tested imepitoin's abilities to reduce anxiety-related behaviors in canines, [32] but unlike the previous study, researchers evaluated the dogs personally for canine temperament using a Positive and Negative Activation Scale (PANAS), rather than having the participants' owners evaluate the dogs through an online survey. Average weekly reaction (AWR) scores in response to anxiety-inducing stimuli and owners' diary entries were also taken into account. Results displayed significantly lower AWR scores for anxiety alongside a reduction in negative activation on the PANAS, concluding that imepitoin is a drug-therapy option to positively reduce canines' anxiety-related behaviors. However, imepitoin is not being prescribed to treat separation anxiety in canines.

Environmental management

Boston Terrier in crate. 1Boston terrier.jpg
Boston Terrier in crate.

Managing and controlling the canine environment is one method used to help treat separation anxiety in dogs. The focus is to reduce the canine's anxiety while eliminating possible means of self-injury or harm to the surrounding environment. In the cases of some dogs, crate training can provide an effective enclosure in which the canine feels safe and comfortable, whilst eliminating possible means of harm in the environment, as they are enclosed. [33] The use of a crate or small, enclosed structure is effective for dogs who have been accustomed to crate training before, however introducing this method past the accustomed age of house training, can worsen the symptoms experienced by the dog. [33] As well, confining a dog who is unaccustomed to the crate or enclosure environment can increase a stress induced behavioural response known as lip licking. [34] Self-harm and injury to the animal can also increase as confinement can cause distress leading to the canine trying to escape. [35]

Another method used to reduce distress in dogs experiencing separation anxiety is the use of a dog-appeasing pheromone. Studies proved that 83 percent of dogs exposed to a pheromone, in the absence of their owner, experienced reduced stress and anxiety; 70% of dogs prescribed clomipramine, a psychotropic drug, experienced said reduction in separation-induced symptoms. [36] The dog-appeasing pheromone (DAP), also known as apasine, is a pheromone secreted by lactating females by the sebaceous glands in the intermammary sulcus. [37] Young and adult canines detect the pheromone through the Jacobson's organ or vomero-nasal organ (VNO), and in result, detection ameliorates symptoms related to separation anxiety, phobias, and hyper-attachment. [38] Synthetic forms of dog-appeasing pheromone, such as Adaptil, have been developed by the pharmaceutical industry for over-the-counter use, however their efficacy is reduced in comparison to natural DAP. [39] As the stimulus, absence of owner and behavioural responses relating to separation anxiety are present, exposure to small intervals of owners' absence can condition the behavioural responses to change and become calm and positive. Absence period is gradually extended up to a suitable period of time of which anxiety-induced behavioural responses no longer occur. [40]

Behavioural management

Behavioural management consists of several non-medication type treatments that reduce the effects of separation anxiety on the dog and homeowners. A behavioural technique found to aid in management of the disorder is to cease all forms of punishment related to the animals behaviour. [41] Punishment in cases of separation anxiety does not reduce the behaviour or anxiety levels of dogs; it increases their stress levels, prolonging the symptoms and behavioural responses induced by separation. [42]

Systematic desensitization is a technique used to reduce anxiety-induced behavioural responses; is based on classical conditioning. As the stimulus, absence of owner and behavioural responses relating to separation anxiety are present, exposure to small intervals of owners' absence can condition the behavioural responses to change and become calm and positive. Absence period is gradually extended up to a suitable period of time of which anxiety-induced behavioural responses no longer occur. [43] By repeatedly demonstrating short owner absence times, non-anxious behaviour over longer absence times is eventually encouraged. The main goal of this step is to extend absence time where the canine does not experience separation-related behaviour problems; reducing anxiety for the dog and homeowner. [44] It is important that the canine does not experience a traumatic event during this training, otherwise desensitization will not be successful. Counterconditioning is also used in conjunction with systematic desensitization; the intent to change an animal's emotional response to a stimulus. Counterconditioning is achieved by pairing the stimulus that elicits the negative response with a stimulus that elicits a positive response, thus changing the emotional response from fear and anxiety to calm and positive. [45] The canine is conditioned to associate the fearful stimuli with a positive outcome (e.g., given toy or food during departure of owner). Treatment had a greater success rate when systematic desensitization and counterconditioning were paired; canines treated by Rogerson with systematic desensitization and counterconditioning for anxiety-related behavioural responses had a 100% success rate. [46]

When leaving the house, or while still within the household, but out of sight, an important strategy to employ is to ignore clingy or attention-seeking behavior. [47] Responding to canines' attention-seeking behaviours can also be related to operant conditioning; positively reinforcing the behaviour increases the likelihood of the behavioural response to re-occur, however the use of negative punishment (i.e., not acknowledging behaviour) will reduce attention-seeking behavioural responses, which reduces the dog's dependency on the owner.

Research

A study conducted in 2016 used primary metabolite profiling through a combination of liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify possible biomarkers for anxiety-related behavior. [48] Primary metabolites are directly involved in more "natural" processes, such as reproduction and development, [49] so abnormal differences could result in differences of mental development. Results identified changes in thirteen metabolites between dogs who had separation anxiety and those who did not; these changes included differences in hypoxanthine, indoxysulfate and phospholipids, all which control oxidative stress, tryptophan levels, and lipid metabolisms. Researchers concluded that biomarkers like primary metabolites play a prominent role in canine anxiety.

Related Research Articles

Neutering, from the Latin neuter, is the removal of a non-human animal's reproductive organ, either all of it or a considerably large part. The male-specific term is castration, while spaying is usually reserved for female animals. Colloquially, both terms are often referred to as fixing. In male horses, castrating is referred to as gelding. An animal that has not been neutered is sometimes referred to as entire or intact.

Dog intelligence or dog cognition is the process in dogs of acquiring information and conceptual skills, and storing them in memory, retrieving, combining and comparing them, and using them in new situations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog aggression</span> Behavior in dogs

Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feather-plucking</span> Maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds

Feather-plucking, sometimes termed feather-picking, feather damaging behaviour or pterotillomania, is a maladaptive, behavioural disorder commonly seen in captive birds that chew, bite or pluck their own feathers with their beak, resulting in damage to the feathers and occasionally the skin. It is especially common among parrots, with an estimated 10% of captive parrots exhibiting the disorder. The areas of the body that are mainly pecked or plucked are the more accessible regions such as the neck, chest, flank, inner thigh and ventral wing area. Contour and down feathers are generally identified as the main target, although in some cases, tail and flight feathers are affected. Although feather-plucking shares characteristics with feather pecking commonly seen in commercial poultry, the two behaviours are currently considered to be distinct as in the latter, the birds peck at and pull out the feathers of other individuals.

Skin disorders are among the most common health problems in dogs, and have many causes. The condition of a dog's skin and coat is also an important indicator of its general health. Skin disorders of dogs vary from acute, self-limiting problems to chronic or long-lasting problems requiring life-time treatment. Skin disorders may be primary or secondary in nature, making diagnosis complicated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clomipramine</span> Antidepressant

Clomipramine, sold under the brand name Anafranil among others, is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). It is used in the treatment of various conditions, most-notably obsessive–compulsive disorder but also many other disorders, including hyperacusis, panic disorder, major depressive disorder, trichotillomania, body dysmorphic disorder and chronic pain. It has also been notably used to treat premature ejaculation and the cataplexy associated with narcolepsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog health</span> Health of dogs

The health of dogs is a well studied area in veterinary medicine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lick granuloma</span> Medical condition

A lick granuloma, also known as acral lick dermatitis, is a skin disorder found most commonly in dogs, but also in cats. In dogs, it results typically from the dog's urge to lick the lower portion of one of their legs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog</span> Domesticated canid species

The dog is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was domesticated from an extinct population of Pleistocene wolves over 14,000 years ago. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans. Experts estimate that hunter-gatherers domesticated dogs more than 15,000 years ago, which was before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal-assisted therapy</span> Alternative or complementary type of therapy

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is an alternative or complementary type of therapy that includes the use of animals in a treatment. The goal of this animal-assisted intervention is to improve a patient's social, emotional, or cognitive functioning. Studies have documented some positive effects of the therapy on subjective self-rating scales and on objective physiological measures such as blood pressure and hormone levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog behavior</span> Internally coordinated responses of dogs to internal and external stimuli

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.

Cynophobia is the fear of dogs and canines in general. Cynophobia is classified as a specific phobia, under the subtype "animal phobias". According to Timothy O. Rentz of the Laboratory for the Study of Anxiety Disorders at the University of Texas, animal phobias are among the most common of the specific phobias and 36% of patients who seek treatment report being afraid of dogs or afraid of cats. Although ophidiophobia or arachnophobia are more common animal phobias, cynophobia is especially debilitating because of the high prevalence of dogs and the general ignorance of dog owners to the phobia. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) reports that only 12% to 30% of those with a specific phobia will seek treatment.

Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cancer in dogs</span>

Cancer is the leading cause of death in dogs. It is estimated that 1 in 3 domestic dogs will develop cancer, which is the same incidence of cancer among humans. Dogs can develop a variety of cancers and most are very similar to those found in humans. Dogs can develop carcinomas of epithelial cells and organs, sarcomas of connective tissues and bones, and lymphomas or leukemias of the circulatory system. Selective breeding of dogs has led certain pure-bred breeds to be at high-risk for specific kinds of cancer.

Dog noise phobia, along with dog noise anxiety, are terms sometimes used by dog owners and veterinarians to describe canine fear of, and the corresponding stress responses to, loud noises.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog appeasing pheromone</span>

Dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), sometimes known as apasine, is a mixture of esters of fatty acids released by the sebaceous glands in the inter-mammary sulcus of lactating female dogs. It is secreted from between three and four days after parturition and two to five days after weaning. DAP is believed to be detected by the vomeronasal organ and has an appeasing effect on both adults and pups, and assists in establishing a bond with the mother.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human–canine bond</span> Interspecies relationship

Human–canine bonding is the relationship between dogs and humans. This relationship can be traced back to at least 15,000 years ago, to the Bonn-Oberkassel dog, who was found buried alongside two humans. For centuries, dogs have been considered man's best friend. This is most evident in Western countries, such as the United States, where 44% of households have a pet dog.

An animal behavior consultant is a practitioner of applied behavior analysis or clinical animal behaviour, who helps resolve behavior problems in animals, usually companion animals. Animal behavior consultants are usually employed to identify the cause of a behavior problem, to develop an intervention plan to change the problem behavior, and to help the owners learn how to execute that plan. Animal behavior consultants are distinct from animal trainers, in that their primary goal is not to train an animal to have basic manners or to perform a task, such as agility competition for dogs, but to mitigate behaviors that are problems for the animal's owner. Animal behavior consultants may also be known as clinical animal behaviourists, pet behavior counsellors or pet psychologists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tail chasing</span> Behaviour exhibited in dogs

Tail chasing is a behaviour exhibited in dogs that is characterized by spinning in tight circles in either direction, and can be slow and focused on the tail or fast and unfocused. It is a compulsion similar to those seen in humans suffering from OCD and it can be quite disruptive to the lives of the dogs themselves, as well as their owners. Some causes have been suggested, including genetic factors, and environmental factors that vary depending on the individual dog. Furthermore, treatment options include drugs that decrease the frequency of tail chasing by targeting the underlying mechanisms, and behavioural changes regulated by the dog's owners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fly biting</span>

Fly biting refers to a type of dog behavior: episodes of intentional focused biting at the air, as if the dog is biting at imaginary flies. Cavalier King Charles Spaniels appear to be predisposed to fly catching syndrome, though it has been documented in many different breeds and mixes. Age of onset is varied.

References

  1. "Guide to Separation Anxiety in Dogs". PawLeaks (2020). 19 June 2019.
  2. of the US, Humane Society. "Separation Anxiety" . Retrieved 9 August 2012.
  3. MD, Pet. "Separation Anxiety in Dogs" . Retrieved 9 August 2012.
  4. Dreschel, Nancy (2010). "The effects of fear and anxiety on health and lifespan in pet dogs". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 125 (3): 157–162. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.04.003.
  5. Sargisson, Rebecca (30 October 2014). "Canine separation anxiety: strategies for treatment and management". Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 5: 143–151. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S60424 . ISSN   2230-2034. PMC   7521022 . PMID   33062616.
  6. "Literature Review: Behavior Modification for Canine Separation Anxiety". International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants. Retrieved 2024-07-24.
  7. "Treating Separation Anxiety in Dogs". Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Retrieved 2024-07-24.
  8. 1 2 ASPCA. "Common Dog Behavior Issues". ASPCA. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
  9. 1 2 "Separation Anxiety : The Humane Society of the United States" . Retrieved 2012-03-08.
  10. 1 2 Ogata, Niwako (2016-11-01). "Separation anxiety in dogs: What progress has been made in our understanding of the most common behavioral problems in dogs?". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 16: 28–35. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2016.02.005. ISSN   1558-7878.
  11. PAWS. "Separation Anxiety". PAWS. Retrieved 2020-09-30.
  12. Takeuchi, Yukari (2000). "Evaluation of treatments for separation anxiety in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 217 (3): 342–345. doi: 10.2460/javma.2000.217.342 . PMID   10935036.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 McCrave, Elizabeth A. (1991). "Diagnostic Criteria for Separation Anxiety in the Dog". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. 21 (2): 247–255. doi:10.1016/S0195-5616(91)50030-9. PMID   2053248.
  14. 1 2 Sherman, Barbara L. (2008). "Understanding Behavior: Separation Anxiety in Dogs". Behaviour Compendium. 30: 27–42.
  15. Lindell, Ellen (2017). "Canine House Soiling" (PDF). Clinicians Brief: 111–114.
  16. Brooks, Wendy (2021). "Urinary Incontinence in Dogs and Cats". Veterinary Partner.
  17. 1 2 Dowling, Patricia M. (2015). "Urinary Incontinence". Merck Veterinary Manual.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lindell, Ellen (2017). "Canine House Soiling" (PDF). Clinicians Brief: 111–114.
  19. Hunthausen, W. L. (1991). "The causes, treatment, and prevention of canine destructive chewing". Veterninary Medicine.
  20. McMillan, Franklin D. (2019). "The Psychological Aspects of Abuse and Neglect in Animals". Small Animal Forensics & Animal Welfare.
  21. Hamby, Tori Medication now used to treat pet’s behavioral disorders September 30, 2012 http://www.huntersvilleherald.com/news/2012/09/30/medication-now-used-to-treat-pets-behavioral-disorders/
  22. 1 2 Seksel, K; Lindeman, MJ (2001). "Use of clomipramine in treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, separation anxiety and noise phobia in dogs: A preliminary, clinical study". Australian Veterinary Journal. 79 (4): 252–6. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.2001.tb11976.x. PMID   11349411.
  23. Simpson, BS; Landsberg, GM; Reisner, IR; Ciribassi, JJ; Horwitz, D; Houpt, KA; Kroll, TL; Luescher, A; et al. (2007). "Effects of reconcile (fluoxetine) chewable tablets plus behavior management for canine separation anxiety". Veterinary Therapeutics. 8 (1): 18–31. PMID   17447222.
  24. Karagiannis, Christos I.; Burman, Oliver HP; Mills, Daniel S. (2015-12-01). "Dogs with separation-related problems show a "less pessimistic" cognitive bias during treatment with fluoxetine (Reconcile™) and a behaviour modification plan". BMC Veterinary Research. 11 (1): 80. doi: 10.1186/s12917-015-0373-1 . ISSN   1746-6148. PMC   4393593 . PMID   25889323.
  25. Irimajiri, M; Luescher, AU; Douglass, G; Robertson-Plouch, C; Zimmermann, A; Hozak, R (2009). "Randomized, controlled clinical trial of the efficacy of fluoxetine for treatment of compulsive disorders in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 235 (6): 705–9. doi: 10.2460/javma.235.6.705 . PMID   19751167.
  26. Crowell-Davis, Sharon L.; Seibert, Lynne M.; Sung, Wailani; Parthasarathy, Valli; Curtis, Terry M. (2003). "Use of clomipramine, alprazolam, and behavior modification for treatment of storm phobia in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 222 (6): 744–8. doi:10.2460/javma.2003.222.744. PMID   12675296.
  27. Crowell-Davis, Sharon L.; Seibert, Lynne M.; Sung, Wailani; Parthasarathy, Valli; Curtis, Terry M. (2003). "Use of clomipramine, alprazolam, and behavior modification for treatment of storm phobia in dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 222 (6): 744–8. doi:10.2460/javma.2003.222.744. PMID   12675296.
  28. Frey, Hans-Hasso; Philippin, Hans-Peter; Scheuler, Wolfgang (1984). "Development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of diazepam in dogs". European Journal of Pharmacology. 104 (1–2): 27–38. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(84)90365-0. PMID   6437848.
  29. Hamby, Tori Medication now used to treat pet’s behavioral disorders September 30, 2012 http://www.huntersvilleherald.com/news/2012/09/30/medication-now-used-to-treat-pets-behavioral-disorders/
  30. Lydiard, R. Bruce (2003). "The role of GABA in anxiety disorders". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 64 (Suppl 3): 21–27. ISSN   0160-6689. PMID   12662130.
  31. Packer, Rowena M. A.; De Risio, Luisa; Volk, Holger A. (2017-04-07). "Investigating the potential of the anti-epileptic drug imepitoin as a treatment for co-morbid anxiety in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy". BMC Veterinary Research. 13 (1): 90. doi: 10.1186/s12917-017-1000-0 . ISSN   1746-6148. PMC   5383962 . PMID   28388948.
  32. McPeake, Kevin J.; Mills, Daniel S. (2017-06-13). "The use of imepitoin (Pexion™) on fear and anxiety related problems in dogs - a case series". BMC Veterinary Research. 13 (1): 173. doi: 10.1186/s12917-017-1098-0 . ISSN   1746-6148. PMC   5470190 . PMID   28610629.
  33. 1 2 Sherman, Barbara L. (2008). "Understanding Behavior: Separation Anxiety in Dogs". Behaviour Compendium. 30: 27–42.
  34. Clark, Stephanie D.; Smidt, Jessica M.; Bauer, Brent A. (2020-11-13). "Therapy Dogs' and Handlers' Behavior and Salivary Cortisol During Initial Visits in a Complex Medical Institution: A Pilot Study". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 7: 564201. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.564201 . ISSN   2297-1769. PMC   7691227 . PMID   33282927.
  35. Sargisson, Rebecca (2014). "Canine separation anxiety: strategies for treatment and management". Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 5: 143–151. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S60424 . ISSN   2230-2034. PMC   7521022 . PMID   33062616.
  36. Sargisson, Rebecca (2014). "Canine separation anxiety: strategies for treatment and management". Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 5: 143–151. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S60424 . ISSN   2230-2034. PMC   7521022 . PMID   33062616.
  37. Kim, Young-Mee; Lee, Jong-Kyung; el-aty, A.M. Abd; Hwang, Sung-Hee; Lee, Jae-Hoon; Lee, Sang-Mok (2010). "Efficacy of dog-appeasing pheromone (DAP) for ameliorating separation-related behavioral signs in hospitalized dogs". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 51 (4): 380–384. ISSN   0008-5286. PMC   2839826 . PMID   20592826.
  38. Kim, Young-Mee; Lee, Jong-Kyung; el-aty, A.M. Abd; Hwang, Sung-Hee; Lee, Jae-Hoon; Lee, Sang-Mok (2010). "Efficacy of dog-appeasing pheromone (DAP) for ameliorating separation-related behavioral signs in hospitalized dogs". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 51 (4): 380–384. ISSN   0008-5286. PMC   2839826 . PMID   20592826.
  39. Frank, Diane; Beauchamp, Guy; Palestrini, Clara (2010-06-15). "Systematic review of the use of pheromones for treatment of undesirable behavior in cats and dogs". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 236 (12): 1308–1316. doi: 10.2460/javma.236.12.1308 . ISSN   0003-1488. PMID   20550445.
  40. Sargisson, Rebecca (2014). "Canine separation anxiety: strategies for treatment and management". Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 5: 143–151. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S60424 . ISSN   2230-2034. PMC   7521022 . PMID   33062616.
  41. Sherman, Barbara L. (2008). "Understanding Behavior: Separation Anxiety in Dogs". Behaviour Compendium. 30: 27–42.
  42. Sherman, Barbara L. (2008). "Understanding Behavior: Separation Anxiety in Dogs". Behaviour Compendium. 30: 27–42.
  43. Sargisson, Rebecca (2014). "Canine separation anxiety: strategies for treatment and management". Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 5: 143–151. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S60424 . ISSN   2230-2034. PMC   7521022 . PMID   33062616.
  44. Sargisson, Rebecca (2014). "Canine separation anxiety: strategies for treatment and management". Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 5: 143–151. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S60424 . ISSN   2230-2034. PMC   7521022 . PMID   33062616.
  45. Riemer, Stefanie (2020-05-01). "Effectiveness of treatments for firework fears in dogs". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 37: 61–70. doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2020.04.005 . ISSN   1558-7878. S2CID   218960518.
  46. Rogerson, John (1997-04-01). "Canine fears and phobias; a regime for treatment without recourse to drugs". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Behavioural Problems of Small Animals. 52 (3): 291–297. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01129-X. ISSN   0168-1591.
  47. Sherman, Barbara L. (2008). "Understanding Behavior: Separation Anxiety in Dogs". Behaviour Compendium. 30: 27–42.
  48. Puurunen, Jenni; Tiira, Katriina; Lehtonen, Marko; Hanhineva, Kati; Lohi, Hannes (2016-02-12). "Non-targeted metabolite profiling reveals changes in oxidative stress, tryptophan and lipid metabolisms in fearful dogs". Behavioral and Brain Functions. 12 (1): 7. doi: 10.1186/s12993-016-0091-2 . ISSN   1744-9081. PMC   4751666 . PMID   26867941.
  49. "Plant Physiology|Digital Textbook Library". www.tankonyvtar.hu. Retrieved 2017-08-08.