The following list is a comparison of basic Proto-Slavic vocabulary and the corresponding reflexes in the modern languages, for assistance in understanding the discussion in Proto-Slavic and History of the Slavic languages. The word list is based on the Swadesh word list, developed by the linguist Morris Swadesh, a tool to study the evolution of languages via comparison, containing a set of 207 basic words which can be found in every language and are rarely borrowed. However, the words given as the modern versions are not necessarily the normal words with the given meaning in the various modern languages, but the words directly descended from the corresponding Proto-Slavic word (the reflex). The list here is given both in the orthography of each language, with accent marks added as necessary to aid in pronunciation and Proto-Slavic reconstruction. See below for a capsule summary of how to pronounce each language, as well as some discussion of the conventions used.
Translation | Late Proto-Slavic | class | Russian | Ukrainian | Bulgarian | Czech | Slovak | Polish | Serbo-Croatian | Slovene | Macedonian | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cyrillic | Latin | Cyrillic | Latin | Cyrillic | Latin | standard (Shtokavian) | Chakavian | Cyrillic | Latin | |||||||
I | *(j)azъ, (j)ā | prn. | я | ja | я | ja | аз/я(dial.) | az/ja(dial.) | já | ja | ja | jȃ | jå̃ | jàz | јас | jas |
you (singular) | *ty | prn. | ты | ty | ти | ty | ти | ti | ty | ty | ty | tȋ | tĩ | tȋ | ти | ti |
he, she, it | *onъ | prn. | он, она, оно | on, oná, onó | він, вона, воно | vin, voná, vonó | той, тя, то | toj, tya, to | on, ona, ono | ȍn/ȏn, òna, òno | õn, onȁ, onȍ | òn, óna, onọ̑/óno | тој/оној | toj/onoj | ||
we | *my | prn. | мы | my | ми | my | ни́е | níe | my | my | my | mȋ | mĩ | mȋ | ние | nie |
you (plural) | *vy | prn. | вы | vy | ви | vy | ви́е | víe | vy | vy | wy | vȋ | vĩ | vȋ | вие | vie |
they | *oni, *ony, *ona | prn. | они́ | on'í | вони́ | vony | те | te | oni, ony, ona | oni, ony, ona | oni, one | oni, one, ona | oni, one, ona | тие/оние | tie/onie | |
this, that | *tъ | prn. | то | tot, ta, to | той, та, то | toj, ta, to | (това́) | (tová) | ten, ta, to | ten, tá, to | ten, ta, to | tȃj, tȃ, tȏ | tȁ, tȃ, tȏ/tȍ | tȃ, tȃ, tọ̑ | ова/она | ova/ona |
here | *sьde, *tu | здесь, тут | zd'es', tut | тут | tut | тук, тука | tuk, tuka | zde, tu | tu | tu, tutaj | tu | tù, túkaj, zde | овде, тука | ovde, tuka | ||
there | *tamъ | там | tam | там | tam | там | tam | tam | tam | tam | tamo | tam | таму | tamu | ||
who | *kъto | prn. | кто | kto | хто | khto | ((кой)) | ((koi)) | kdo | kto | kto | (t)kȍ; ki | kdọ́ | кој | koj | |
what | *čьto, *čь | prn. | что | čto /što/ | що | ščo | що (dial.) | shto | co | čo | co | štȍ/šta | (Vrg.) ča (<*čь) | kaj | што | što |
where | *kъde | prn. | где | gd'e | де | de | къде | kəde | kde | kde | gdzie | gd(j)ȅ | kadȅ (Orb.) | kjẹ́ | каде | kade |
when | *kogъda; *kogъdy | adv./conj. | когда́ | kogdá | коли́ | kolý | кога́ | kogá | (kdy); OCz. kehdy | kedy | kiedy, gdy | kàda | kdáj | кога | koga | |
how; what (kind of) | kakъ | adv.; prn. | как | kak; kakój | як | jak | как, какъв | kak, kakɤv | (jak) (OCz. jaký) | ako (OSk. aký) | (jak), jaki/jaka/jakie (arch. jako, jakowy/jakowa/jakowe) | kàko, kakav/kakva/kakvo | kakọ̑, kakšen/kakšna/kakšno | како, каков/каква/какво | kako, kakov/kakva/kakvo | |
not | *ne | adv. | не | ne | ні | ni | не | ne | ne | nie | nie | ne | nè | не | ne | |
all | *vьśь, *vьśja, vьśe | prn. | весь, вся, всё | v'es', vs'a, vs'o | весь, вся, вcе | ves', vsja, vse | (вси́чки)/вси | (vsíčki)/vsi | (všichni); OCz. veš, všě, vše | (všetci); OSk. vše | (wszyscy); OPl. wszy, wsza, wsze | sȁv, svȁ, svȅ | svȁs, svȁ, svȅ | vǝ̀s, vsà, vsè | се/сето | se/seto |
many | *mъnogъ | adj. o | мно́гий | mnógij | бага́то | baháto | мно́го | mnógo (adv.) | mnohý | mnohí | mnogi | mnȍgī | mnọ̑gi | многу | mnogu | |
some | *ne + *koliko | не́сколько | n'éskol'ko | де́кілька | dékil'ka | ня́колко | njákolko | několik | niekoľko | kilka | nekoliko | nekọ̑liko, nẹ́kaj | неколку | nekolku | ||
few | *malъ | ма́ло | málo | ма́ло | málo | ма́лко | málko | málo | málo | mało | malo | malo | малку | malku | ||
other/second | *drȗgъ | adj. o (c) | друго́й | drugój | дру́гий | drúhyj | друг (today -"other") | drug | druhý | druhý | drugi, (arch.. wtóry) | drȗg | drȕgī | drȗgi | друг (today -"other") | drug |
other | *jь̀nь | prn. (a) | ино́й | inój | і́нший | ínšyj | инак | inak | jiný | iný, inakší | inny | drugi/ini | drȗg | инаку | inaku | |
one | *(j)edìnъ, *(j)edьnъ | num. o | оди́н, одна́ | od'ín, odná | оди́н | odýn | еди́н | edín | jeden | jeden, jedna | jeden | jèdan, jȅdna | jedå̃n, jednȁ, jednȍ | eden, en, ena, eno | еден | eden |
two | *d(ъ)va | num. | два | dva, dve, dva | два | dva | двa | dva | dva, dvě, dvě | dva, dve | dwa, dwie, dwa | dvȃ, dv(ȉj)e, dvȃ | dvå̑, dvȋ, dvå̑ | dvȃ, dvẹ́, dvȃ | два | dva |
three | *trьje, *tri | num. | три | tr'i | три | try | три | tri | tři | tri | trzy | trȋ | trȋ | trȋje, trȋ, trȋ | три | tri |
four | *četỳre | num. (a) | четы́ре | č'etýr'e | чоти́ри | čotýry | че́ти́ри | čétíri | čtyři | štyri | cztery | čètiri | četȉri | štirje, štiri, štiri | четири | četiri |
five | pę̑tь | num. i (c) | пять | p'at' | п’ять | pjat' | пет | pet | pět | päť | pięć | pȇt | pȇt | pẹ̑t | пет | pet |
big, great | *velìkъ; velьkъ | adj. o | вели́кий | v'el'ík'ij | вели́кий | velýkyj | ((голям)), вели́к | ((goljam)), velík | velký | veľký | wielki | vȅlikī, vȅlikā, vȅlikō | vȅlik, velikȁ, velikȍ | vélik, velíka | голем, велики | golem, veliki |
small | *màlъ | adj. o (a) | ма́лый | mályj | мали́й | malýj | (ма́лък); мал | (málǝk); mal | malý | malý | mały | mȁli | må̃lī | mȃli, majhen | малечoк/а/ки/ко, мал, мало/а/и. | malećok/a/ki/ko, mal, malo/a/i |
long | *dь̀lgъ | adj. o (a) | до́лгий | dólg'ij | до́вгий | dóvhyj | дъ́лъг | dǝ́lǝg | dlouhý | dlhý | długi | dȕg | dȕg | dȏļg, dȏļga, dȏļgo | долг/долго | dolg/dolgo |
short | *kortъ̀kъ | adj. o (b) | коро́ткий | korótk'ij | коро́ткий | korótkyj | кра́тък | krátǝk | krátký | krátky | krótki | krátak, krátka | krå̑tak, krå̄tkȁ, krå̑tko; krãtak, krãtka, krãtko | krátǝk | кратко/а/и, краток | kratko/a/i, kratok |
wide | *širokъ | широ́кий | širók'ij | широ́кий | šyrókyj | широ́к | širók | široký | široký | szeroki | širok | širók | широк, широко/а/и | širok, široko/a/i | ||
narrow | *ǫzъkъ | adj. o | у́зкий | úzk'ij; úzok, uzká, úzko | вузьки́й | vuz'kýj | у́зък | úzǎk | úzký | úzky | wąski | ȕzak, ȕska/uskȁ | ȕsak, uskȁ, ȕsko | ọ́zǝk, ọ́zka | тесно/на/ни/ен | tesno/na/ni/en, teško/a/i |
thick | *tъlstъ | то́лстый | tólstyj | товсти́й | towstýj | тлъст | tlǝst | tlustý | tlstý, hrubý | tłusty | debeli | debel, debẹ́l, tọ̑lst | дебел, дебело/а/и | debel, debelo/a/i | ||
thin | *tь̏nъkъ | adj. o (c) | то́нкий | tónk'ij; tónok, tanká, tónko | тонки́й | tonkýj | т'ънък | tǝ́nǝk | tenký | tenký | cienki | tȁnak, tànka/tánka | tȁnak, tankȁ, tȃnko | tǝnǝ́k, tǝnkà | тенок, тенко/а/и | tenok, tenko/a/i |
heavy | *tęžъkъ | adj. o | тя́жкий | t'ážkij | тяжки́й | tjažkýj | те́жък | téžǝk | těžký | ťažký | ciężki | téžak, téška | tȅžak, tēškȁ | téžǝk téžka, téžko; težȃk | тежок, тешко/а/и | težok, teško/a/i |
woman/wife | *ženà | f. ā (b) | жена́ | ž'ená /žená/ | дружина | družýna | жена́ | žená | žena | žena, manželka | żona | žèna (acc. žènu), supruga | ženȁ (acc. ženȕ) | žéna (wife), žẹ́nska (woman) | жена | ženа |
husband, man | *mǫ̑žь | m. jo (c) | муж | muž | муж | muž | мъж | mǝž | muž | muž, manžel | mąż | mȗž (mȗža) | mọ̑ž (možȃ) | маж | maž | |
man (human) | *čelověkъ | m. o | челове́к | č'elov'ék | чоловік | čolovík (husband) | чове́к | čovék | člověk | človek | człowiek | čòv(j)ek (čòv(j)eka); čȍv(j)ek (čov(j)èka) | čovȉk (čovȉka) | člóvek (človẹ́ka) | човек | čovek |
child | *dětę | дитя́ | d'it'á | дитина | dytýna | дете́ | deté | dítě | dieťa | dziecko, dziecię | d(ij)ete | otrók, dẹ́te | дете | dete | ||
mother | *mati | мать | mat' | мати | máty | ма́йка | májka | matka | matka, mama | matka (arch. mać) | majka, mater, mati | mati | мајка | majka | ||
father | *otьcь | оте́ц | ot'éc | батько | bát'ko | оте́ц | otе́c | otec | otec | ojciec | otac | oče | татко, отец | tatko, otec | ||
wild animal | *zvě̑rь | m. i (c) | зверь | zv'er' | звір | zvir | звяр | zvjar | zvěř | zviera, zver | zwierz, zwierzę | zv(ȉj)er f. (i) | zvȋr (zvȋri) f. (i) | zvẹ̑r (zverȋ) | ѕвер | dzver |
fish | *ryba | ры́ба | rýba | риба | rýba | ри́ба | ríba | ryba | ryba | ryba | riba | riba | риба | riba | ||
bird | *pъtica, *pъtъka | пти́ца | pt'íca | птах | ptax | пти́ца | ptíca | pták | vták | ptak | ptica | ptič, ptica | птица | ptica | ||
dog | *pьsъ | соба́ка, пёс | sobáka, p'os | собака, пес | sobáka, pes | пес, ку́че | pes, kúče | pes | pes | pies | pas | pəs | куче, пес | kuče, pes | ||
louse | *vъ̏šь | f. i (c) | вошь | voš' /voš/ (vš'i) | воша | vóša | въ́шка | vǝ́ška | veš | voš | wesz | vȃš (vȁši); ȗš (ȕši) | ùš (ušȋ); ȗš | вошка | voška | |
snake | *zmьjà | f. iā | змея́ | zm'ejá | змія | zmijá | змия́ | zmijá | zmije [table 1] | had, zmija (venomous) | żmija [table 2] | zmìja | zmijȁ | kača | змија | zmija |
worm | *čьrvь | червь | č'erv' | черв'як | červják | че́рвей | čérvej | červ | červ | czerw, robak | crv | črv | црв | crv | ||
tree | *dervo, *dьrvo | де́рево | d'ér'evo | дерево | dérevo | дърво́ | dǝrvó | dřevo [table 3] | strom, drevo [table 4] | drzewo | drvo | drevọ̑ | дрво | drvo | ||
forest | *lěsъ | лес | l'es | ліс | lis | лес | les | les | les, hora | las | lȇs, lijȇs | gozd, lẹ́s, šuma, họ̑sta, mẹ́ja | шума | šuma | ||
stick | *palica, *palъka | па́лка | pálka | палиця | pályc'a | пáлка | pálka | hůl | palica | laska / pałka / kij | štap, palica | palica | палка | palka | ||
fruit | *plodъ | плод | plod | плід | plid | плод, овошка | plod, ovoška | ovoce (plod) | ovocie | owoc (płód) | plod | plọ̑d | плод | plod | ||
seed | *sěmę | се́мя | s'ém'a | насіння | nasínn'a | се́ме | séme | semeno | semeno, semä (archaic) | nasiono/nasienie, ziarno, siemię | s(j)eme | sẹ́me | семе, семенка | seme, semenka | ||
leaf | *listъ | лист | l'ist | лист | lyst | листо́, лист | listó, list | list | list | liść | list | list | лист | list | ||
root | *korenь | ко́рень | kór'en' | корінь | kórin' | ко́рен | kóren | kořen | koreň | korzeń | kor(ij)en | korẹ́n, korenína | корен | koren | ||
bark (of a tree) | *kora | кора́ | korá | кора | korá | кора́ | korá | kůra | kôra | kora | kora | skọ̑rja | кора | kora | ||
flower | *květъ | цвето́к | cv'etók | квітка | kvítka | цве́те | cvéte | květ | kvet | kwiat, kwiecie | cv(ij)et | rọ̑ža, cvẹ́t, cvetlíca | цвеќе | cvekje | ||
grass | *trava | трава́ | travá | трава | travá | трева́ | trevá | tráva | tráva | trawa | trava | trava | трева | treva | ||
rope | *ǫže | верёвка | v'er'óvka | мотузка | motúzka | въже́ | vǝžé | provaz, houžev | povraz, šnúra, lano | sznur, lina, powróz | uže | vrv, konópec | јаже | jaže | ||
skin | *koža | ко́жа | kóža | шкіра | škíra | ко́жа | kóža | kůže | koža | kożuch, [table 5] skóra | koža | kọ̑ža | кожа | koža | ||
meat | *męso | мя́со | m'áso | м'ясо | mjáso | ме́со | méso | maso | mäso | mięso | meso | mesọ̑ | месо | meso | ||
blood | *kry | кровь | krov' | кров | krov | кръв | krǝv | krev | krv | krew | krv | kri | крв | krv | ||
bone | *kostь | кость | kost' | кістка | kístka | кост, ко́кал | kost, kókal | kost | kosť | kość, kostka(deminutive) | kost | kọ̑st | коска | koska | ||
fat (noun) | *sadlo | са́ло | sálo | жир | žyr | сало (dial.) | salo | sádlo, tuk | tuk, sadlo | tłuszcz, sadło | masnoća, mast, salo | mast, tọ̑lšča, maščóba, salo | сало | salo | ||
egg | *ȃje; *ajьce | n. jo (c); n. jo | яйцо́ | jajcó | яйце | jajcé | яйце́ | jajcé | vejce | vajce, vajco (regional) | jajo; jajko, jajco | jáje; jájce | jå̑je | jájce | јајце | jajce |
horn | *rȍgъ m. o (c) | рог | rog | ріг | rih | рог | rog | roh | roh | róg (rogu) | rȏg (rȍga) | rọ̑g (rọ̑ga/rogȃ) | рог | rog | ||
tail | *xvȍstъ | хвост | hvost | хвіст | xvist | опа́шка | opáška | chvost | chvost | chwost | rȇp | rȅp | о́пашка | ópaška | ||
feather | *però | n. o (b) | перо́ | p'eró | перо | peró | перо́ | peró | péro | pero, pierko | pióro | pèro | perȍ | perọ̑ (perẹ́sa) | перо | pero |
hair | *vȏlsъ | m. o (c) | во́лос | vólos (vólosa) | волосина, волосся | volosýna, volóss'a | влакнó | vlaknó | vlas | vlas | włos, kosmyk [table 6] | vlȃs (vlȃsa) | vlå̑s (vlå̑sa) | lȃs (lȃsa/lasȗ) | влакно | vlakno |
hair, braided hair | *kosà | f. ā (c) | kosá (kósu) [table 7] | коса | kosá | коса́ | kosá | vlasy OCz. kosa | vlasy, vrkoče OSk. kosa | OPl. kosa [table 8] | kòsa (acc. kȍsu) | (Novi) kosȁ (acc. kosȕ/kȍsu) | lasjẹ́ | косa | kosa | |
head | *golvà | f. ā (c) | голова́ | golová (acc. gólovu) | голова | holová | глава́ | glavá | hlava | hlava | głowa | gláva (acc. glȃvu) | glå̄vȁ (acc. glå̑vu) | gláva | глава | glava |
ear | *ȗxo | n. o (c) | у́хо | úxo, pl. úš'i /úšy/ | вухо | vúxo | ухо́ | uhó | ucho | ucho | ucho | ȕho/ȕvo, pl. f. ȕši | ȕho (ȕha), pl. m. ȕši | uhọ̑ (ušẹ̑sa) | уво, уше | uvo, uše |
eye | *ȍko | n. o (c) | глаз, о́ко | óko (poet.) | око | о́ko | око́ | okó | oko | ȍko | okọ̑ (očẹ̑sa) | око | oko | |||
nose | *nȍsъ | m. o (c) | нос | nos | ніс | nis | нос | nos | nos | nȏs (nȍsa) | nọ̑s (nọ̑sa/nosȃ/nosȗ) | нос | nos | |||
mouth | *ūstà | pl. n. o (b) | рот | rot | вуста | vustá | уста́ | ustá | ústa | usta | ústa | ũstå̄; ũsta | ústa | уста | usta | |
tooth | *zǫ̑bъ | m. o (c) | зуб | zub | зуб | zub | зъб | zǝb | zub | zub | ząb | zȗb (zȗba) | zọ̑b (zọ̑ba) | заб | zab | |
tongue/language | *ęzỳkъ | m. o (a) | язы́к | jazýk | язик, мова | jazýk, móva | ези́к | ezík | jazyk | jazyk | język | jèzik | jazȉk | jézik (jezíka) | јазик | jazik |
nail (of finger/toe), claw | *nȍgъtь | m. i/io (c) | но́готь | nógot' (nógt'a) | ніготь | níhot' | но́кът | nókǝt | nehet | necht | paznokieć (OPl. paznogiedź), pazur | nȍkat (nȍkta); nogat (nokta) | nȍhat (nȍhta) | nọ̑ht (nọ̑hta) | нокт, канџа | nokt, kandža |
foot, leg | *noga | f. ā (c) | нога́ | nogá | ногá | nohá | крак, нога | krak, nogá | noha | noha | noga | nòga (nȍgu) | nogȁ (nȍgu) | nóga | нога | noga |
knee | *kolě̀no | n. o (a) | коле́но | kol'éno | коліно | kolíno | коля́но | kolyáno | koleno | koleno | kolano | kòl(j)eno | kolȉno | kolẹ́no | колено/ница | koleno/nica |
hand | *rǭkà | f. ā (c) | рука́ | ruká | рука | ruká | ръка́ | rǝká | ruka | ruka | ręka | rúka (rȗku) | rūkȁ (rȗku) | róka | рака | raka |
wing | *krīdlò | n. o (b) | крыло́ | kryló | крило | kryló | крило́ | kriló | křídlo | krídlo | skrzydło | krílo | (Orb.) krīlȍ | krílo | крило | krilo |
belly | *bŗȗxo, *bŗȗxъ | m./n. o (c) | живот | žyvot | живіт | žyvít | корем, стомах, търбух | korem, stomah, tǝrbuh | břicho | brucho | brzuch | trbuh | --- | trẹ́buh (trebúha) | стомак, желудник | stomak, želudnik |
guts | *červo | кишки́ | k'išk'í | кишки́ | kyšký | черва́ | červá | střeva | črevá | trzewia (ścierwo [table 9] ) | cr(ij)evo | črevo, črevẹ́sje | црева | creva | ||
neck | *šija, *šьja | ше́я | š'éja /šéja/ | шия | šýja | врат, ши́я | vrat, šíja | krk | krk | szyja, kark | vrat, šija | vrat | шија | šija | ||
back | *xrьbьtъ | спина́ | spiná | спи́на | spýna | гръб | grǝb | záda, hřbet | chbát | grzbiet | leđa | hrbet | грб | grb | ||
shoulder | *pletjè | n. jo (b) | плечó | plečó | плече | plečé | плещи (pl.) | pleští pl. | rameno, pleco | plece, rameno | plecy pl., [table 10] ramię [table 11] | pléće, rame | (Novi) plećȅ | rama, plẹ́ča | плеќи | plékji |
breast | *grǫ̑dь | f. i (c) | грудь | grud' | груди | hrúdy | гръд | grǝd | prsa, hruď | prsia, hruď | pierś; OPl. grędzi (pl.) | grȗd, prsa | prsi, grudi, nẹ́drje | града | grada | |
heart | *sь̏rdьce | n. jo (c) | се́рдце | s'érdc'e /s'érce/ | серце | sérce | сърце́ | sǝrcé | srdce | srdce | serce (OPl. serdce) | sȑce (sȑca) | srcẹ̑ (srcá) | срце | srce | |
liver | *ę̄trò, *pečenь | n. o (b) | játro/jatró [table 12] | печінка | pečínka | черен дроб, джигер | cheren drob, džiger | játra (pl.) | pečeň | (wątroba) | jȅtra (pl.) | (Orb.) jiẽtra (pl.) | jẹ́tra (pl.) | џигер, црн дроб | džiger, crn drob | |
to drink | *pìti | v. | пить | p'it' | пити | pýty | да пи́я | da píja | píti | piť | pić | pȉti (pȉjēm) | pȉti (pījȅš) | píti (píjem) | да пие | da pie |
to eat | *ě̀sti | v. | есть | jest' | їсти | jísty | да ям | da jam | jísti | jesť | jeść | jȅsti (jȅdem) | ȉsti/ĩsti (3sg. idẽ) | jẹ́sti (jẹ́m) | да јаде | da jade |
to gnaw | *grỳzti | v. (c) | грызть | gryzt' | гризти | hrýzty | да гризя | da grize | hryzat | hrýzť | gryźć | grȉsti (grízēm) | grȉsti (2sg. grīzȅš) | grísti (grízem) | да гризе | da grize |
to suck | *sъsàti | v. | соса́ть | sosát' (sosú, sos'ót) | смоктати | smoktáty | (су́ча) | (súča) | sát (saji) | cicať, sať | ssać (ssę) | sisati | sesáti (sesȃm) | да цица | da cica | |
to spit | *pjь̀vati | v. (a) | плева́ть | pl'evát' (pljujú, plujót) | плювати | pl'uváty | плю́я | pljúja; pljúvam | plivat (plivu) | pľuť (pľujem) | pluć (pluję), (arch. plwać) | pljùvati (pljȕjēm) | pljúvati (pljúvam) | да плука | da pluka | |
to vomit | *bljьvàti | v. | блева́ть | bl'evát' | блювати | bl'uváty | повръщам, бълвам | povrǝ́shtam, bǝ́lvam | blít (bliju) | zvracať, OSk. bľuť, bľuvať | wymiotować, zwracać, rzygać; OPl. bluć (bluj̨ę) | bljùvati (bljȕjēm), povraćati | (Orb.) bljȕvat (3sg. bljȗje/bljȕva) | brùhati, bljuváti (bljúvam/bljújem) | да повраќа | da povrakja |
to blow | *dǫ̀ti | v. | дуть, ве́ять | dut', v'éjat' | ду́ти, ві́яти, дму́хати | dúty, víjaty, dmúxaty | ду́хам, ве́я | dúham, véja | vát, vanout, foukat | duť, fúkať, vanúť | dmuchać, dąć, wiać | dúvati, dúhati | pihati | да дува | da duva | |
to breathe | *dyxati | v. | дышать | dyshat' | дихати | dýxaty | ди́шам | díšam | dýchat (dýchám) | dýchať (dýcham) | oddychać; dychać (colloq.), dyszeć [table 13] | dísati (dȋšēm/dȋhām) | dȉhati (2sg. dȉšeš) | díhati (dȋham) | да дише | da diše |
to laugh | *smьjàti sę | v. (c) | смея́ться | sm'eját's'a | сміятись | smijátys' | сме́я се | sméja se | smát se (směju se) | smiať sa (smejem sa) | śmiać się (śmieję się) | smìjati se (smìjēm se) | (Vrg.) smījȁti se (smijȅš se) | smejáti se (smẹ́jem se/smejím se) | да се смее | da se smee |
to see | *vìděti | v. (a) | ви́деть | v'íd'et' | бачити | báčyty | ви́ждам | vídja, víždam | vidět (vidím) | vidieť (vidím) | widzieć | vȉd(j)eti (vȉdīm) | vìti (2sg. vȉdīš) | vídeti (vȋdim) | да види | da vidi |
to hear | *slušati | слу́шать | slúšat' | слухати | slúxaty | слу́шам, чу́вам | slúšam, čúvam | slyšet (slyším) | počuť (počujem) | słyszeć | slušati | slišati (slišim) | да слушне | da slušne | ||
to know, be familiar with | *znàti | v. (a) | знать | znat' | знати | znáty | зна́я; знам | znája; znam | znát (znám) | vedieť, poznať | znać | znȁti (znȃm) | znȁti (2sg. znå̑š) | poznáti (poznȃm) | да знае, да познава | da znae, da poznava |
to know, have knowledge | *věděti | v. | ведать | v'édat' [table 14] | відати | vídaty | вям | vjam | vědět (vím) | vedieť (viem) | wiedzieć (wiem) | znati | vẹ́deti (vẹ́m) | |||
to understand | *orzuměti | v. | понимать | ponimatʹ | розуміти | rozumíty | разбирам | razbiram | rozumět (rozumím) | rozumieť (rozumiem) | rozumieć (rozumiem) | razùm(j)eti | razumẹ́ti | да разбира | da razbira | |
to think | *mysliti | мы́слить | mýsl'it' | думати, мислити | dúmaty, mýslyty | ми́сля | míslja | myslet (myslím) | myslieť (myslím) | myśleć | misliti | misliti (mislim) | да мисли | da misli | ||
to smell | *ňuxati | ню́хать, чу́ять | n'úkhat', čújat' | нюхати, відчувати | n'úxaty, vidčuváty | мири́ша, ду́ша | miríša, dúša | vonět (voním), čichat (čichám) | voniať (voniam), čuchať (čuchám) | czuć, wąchać, [table 15] wonieć [table 16] | mirisati | vọ̑hati, vọ̑njati, duhati | да мирисне | da mirisne | ||
to fear | *bojati sę | боя́ться | boját's'a | боятись | bojátys' | страху́вам се, боя се | straxúvam se, boja se | bát se | báť sa (bojím sa) | bać się (boję się), płoszyć się, strachać się(arch.), lękać się | bojati se | bati se | да се плаши | da se plaši | ||
to sleep | *sъpati | спать | spat' | спати | spáty | спя | spja | spát | spať | spać | spavati | spati | да спие | da spie | ||
to live | *žìti | v. (c) | жить | ž'it' /žyt'/ | жити | žúty | живе́я | živéja | žít | žiť | żyć | žív(j)eti, 1sg. žívīm | žīvȉti, 2sg. žīvȅš | živẹ́ti | да живее | da živee |
to die | *merti | умира́ть | um'irát' | вмирати | vmyráty | уми́рам | umíram | umírat | umierať, zomierať | umierać, mrzeć | umr(ij)eti, umriti | umrẹ́ti | да умре | da umre | ||
to kill | *ubiti | убива́ть | ub'ivát' | вбивати | vbyváty | уби́вам | ubívam | zabíjet | zabíjať, zabiť | zabijać, ubijać | ubiti | ubíti | да убие | da ubie | ||
to fight | *boriti sę | боро́ться | borót's'a | боротись | borótys' | бо́ря се, би́я се | bórja se, bíja se | bojovat | bojovať, biť sa | walczyć, bić się, wojować, zmagać się | boriti se, tući se | boríti se, bojeváti se | да се бори, да се тепа | da se bori, da se tepa | ||
to hunt | *loviti | охо́титься | oxót'it's'a | полювати | pol'uváty | лову́вам, ловя | lovúvam, lovja | lovit | loviť | polować, [table 17] łowić [table 18] | loviti | lovíti | да лови | da lovi | ||
to hit | *udariti | v. | ударя́ть | udar'át' | вдаряти | vdar'áty | у́дрям | údrjam | udeřit | udrieť | uderzać | ùdariti, 1sg. ùdarīm | udáriti | да удри | da udri | |
to cut | *sěkti, *strigti, *rězati | ре́зать, руби́ть | r'ézat', rub'ít' | секти, стригти, різати | sektý, strýhty, rízaty | ре́жа, сека́ | réža, seká | řezat | rezať, sekať, rúbať | ciąć, [table 19] strzyc, [table 20] siec OPl. rzezać (arch.) | rezati | rẹ́zati | да сече | da seće | ||
to split | разделя́ть | razd'el'át' | розділяти | rozdil'áty | разде́лям | razdéljam | rozdělit | rozdeliť (sa) | podzielić, [table 21] rozdzielić [table 22] | pod(ij)eliti, razd(ij)eliti | razdelíti | да подели, да раздели | da podeli, da razdeli | |||
to stab | *bosti, *kolti | коло́ть | kolót' | колоти | kolóty | буча́, прому́швам, пробо́ждам | bučá, promúšvam, probóždam | píchnout | pichnúť. bodnúť | pchnąć, [table 23] bóść [table 24] (coll. kolnąć) | bosti, ubosti, klati | zabósti, prebósti | да убоде | da ubode | ||
to scratch | *česati, *drapati | цара́пать | carápat' | чесати, дерти | česáty, dérty | че́ша, дра́скам | čéša, dráskam | škrábat | škrabať, škrabnúť | drapać, [table 25] skrobać, [table 26] czesać, [table 27] grzebać [table 28] | češati, grebati, drapati | praskati | да гребе, драска, чеша, драпа | da grebe, draska, ćeša, drapa | ||
to dig | *kopati | копа́ть | kopát' | копати | kopáty | копа́я | kopája | kopat | kopať | kopać | kopati | kopáti | да копа | da kopa | ||
to sail | *pluti; *plỳti | v.; v. (a) | плыть | plyt' (plyvú, plyv'ót) | плити | plyty | плу́вам | plúvam | plout (pluju) | plaviť sa, plávať | (pływać), pluć [table 29] | ploviti | plúti (plújem/plóvem) | да плива, да едри | da pliva, da edri | |
to swim, float | *plàvati | v. (a) | пла́вать | plávat' | плавати | plávaty | пла́вам | plávam | plavat | plávať | pływać, pławić się, [table 30] OPl. pławać | plȉvati | plávati (plȃvam) | да плива, да едри | da pliva, da edri | |
to fly | *letěti | лета́ть | l'etát' | літати | litáty | летя́ | letjá | létat | lietať, letieť | latać, lecieć | let(j)eti | letẹ́ti (letím) | да лета | da leta | ||
to walk | *xoditi | v. | ходи́ть | xod'ít' | ходити | xodýty | хо́дя | xódja | chodit | chodiť, kráčať | chodzić | hòdati | hodȉti | hodíti (hǫ́dim) | да оди | da odi |
to go | *jьti | v. | идти́ | idt'í (idú, id'ót) | йти | jty | вървя, отивам | vǝ́rvja, otivam | jít (jdu) | ísť (idem) | iść (idę) | ìći (ȉdēm) | íti (grem) | да замине | da замине | |
to come | приходи́ть | pr'ixod'ít' | приходити | pryxódyty | и́двам, ида, дохождам | ídvam, ida, dohoždam | přicházet, přijít | prichádzať, prísť | przychodzić, przyjść, dojść | doći, prići | priti | да дојде | da dojde | |||
to lie (as in a bed) | *ležati | лежа́ть | l'ežát' | лежати | ležáty | лежа́ | ležá | ležet | ležať | leżeć | ležati, lijegati | ležáti (ležím) | лежам | ležam | ||
to sit | *sěsti | сиде́ть | s'id'ét' | сидіти | sydíty | седя́ | sedjá | sedět | sedieť | siedzieć | s(j)esti | sedẹ́ti (sedím) | да седне | da sedne | ||
to stand | *stati | стоя́ть | stoját' | стояти | stojáty | стоя́, ставам | stojá, stavam | stát | stáť | stać, stawać, stojeć(arch./dial.) | stati, stajati | vstáti | да стане | da stane | ||
to turn | *vьrtě̀ti | v. (c) | верте́ть | v'ert'ét' | крутити | krutýty | въртя́ | vǝrtjá | vrtět | obracať, zvrtnúť sa | (obracać), wiercić | vŕt(j)eti (vŕtīm) | vrtȉti (2sg. vrtĩš) | vrtẹ́ti (vrtím) | да врти, да заврти | da vrti, da zavrti |
to turn, return | *vortìti | v. (b) | вернуть | vernut' | повернути, вертати | povernúty, vertáty | връщам | vrǝshtam | vrátit | vrátiť sa | wrócić | vrátiti (1sg. vrȃtīm) | vrå̄tȉti (2sg. vrå̃tīš) | vrníti | да се врати | da se vrati |
to fall | *pasti | па́дать | pádat' | падати | pádaty | па́дам | pádam | padat | padať, padnúť | spadać/padać, paść/spaść | pasti | pasti | да падне | da padne | ||
to give | *dati | дава́ть | davát' | дава́ти | daváty | да́вам | dávam | dávat | dávať, dať | dawać, dać | dati | dati | да даде | da dade | ||
to hold | *dьržati | держа́ть | d'eržát' | тримати | trymáty | държа́ | dǝržá | držet | držať | trzymać, dzierżyć | držati | držáti (držím) | да држи | da drži | ||
to squeeze | *tiskati; *žęti | v. (b) | сжима́ть | sž'imát' | стиска́ти | styskáty | сти́скам, ма́чкам | stískam, máčkam | mačkat | stískať, mädliť | ściskać, wyżymać [table 31] | stiskati | stiskati | да стеска, да стега | da steska, da stega | |
to rub | *terti | тере́ть | t'er'ét' | терти | térty | три́я, тъ́ркам | tríja, tǝ́rkam | třít | trieť, šúchať | trzeć | trljati | drgniti, trẹ́ti | да трие | da trie | ||
to wash | *myti | мыть | myt' | мити | mýty | ми́я, пера́ | míja, perá | mýt | umývať, myť | myć, prać [table 32] | oprati, umiti | umíti, opráti | да мие, да пере | da mie, da pere | ||
to wipe | вытира́ть | vyt'irát' | витирати | vytyráty | бъ́рша, три́я | bǝ́rša, tríja | vytírat | utierať, (u)trieť | wycierać, otrzeć | obrisati, brisati | brisati, otrẹ́ti | да бриши | da briši | |||
to pull | *tęgnǫti | тяну́ть | t'anút' | тягти | t'ahtý | дъ́рпам, те́гля, вла́ча | dǝ́rpam, téglja, vláča | táhnout | ťahať | ciągnąć, wlec [table 33] | potegnuti, vući | vlẹ́či, potegníti | да влече, да тегне | da vleće, da tegne | ||
to push | *perti | толка́ть | tolkát' | штовха́ти | štovxáty | нати́скам, бу́там | natískam, bútam | tlačit | tlačiť | pchać, wcisnąć, [table 34] tłoczyć [table 35] | gurnuti | potisniti, poriniti | да турка | da turka | ||
to throw | *kydati, *mesti, *vergti v. | броса́ть, кида́ть | brosát', k'idát' | кидати | kýdaty | хвъ́рлям | xvǝ́rljam | házet; OCz. vrci (1sg. vrhu) | hádzať | rzucać, miotać | |veȑć, 2sg. veȑžeš | vrẹ́či | да фрли | da frli | ||
to tie | *vę̄zàti | v. (b) | вяза́ть | v'azát' | в'яза́ти | v'jazáty | връ́звам | vrǝ́zvam | vázat | viazať | wiązać | vézati, 1sg. véžēm | vēzȁti, 2sg. vēžeš | vẹ́zati | да врзе | da vrze |
to sew | *šiti | шить | šyt' | ши́ти | šýty | ши́я | šíja | šít | šiť | szyć | šiti | sejati | да сошие | da sošie | ||
to count | *čitati | v. | счита́ть, посчита́ть | sč'itátʹ, posč'itátʹ | рахува́ти, лічи́ти | raxuváty, ličýty | бро́я | brója | počítat | počítať | liczyć | bròjati | šteti | да брои | da broi | |
to read | *čitati | v. | чита́ть | č'itát' | чита́ти | čytáty | чета | cheta | číst (čtu) | čítať | czytać | čìtati (čìtām) | čȉtati (2sg. čȉtå̄š) | brati (berem), čítati (čítam) | да чита, да рачуна | da čita, da računa |
to speak, talk | *govorìti | v. | говори́ть | govor'ít' | говори́ти | hovorýty | говоря | govórja | mluvit, hovořit | hovoriť | rozmawiać, mówić, gwarzyć OPl. goworzyć; gaworzyć [table 36] | govòriti (gòvorīm) | govȍrīti (2sg. govȍrīš) | govoríti (govorím) | да говори, да зборува | da govori, da zboruva |
to say, tell | *kāzàti | v. | говори́ть, сказа́ть | govor'ít', skazat' | каза́ти | kazáty | ка́жа | káža | hovořit, říkat | povedať, hovoriť | powiedzieć | kázati (kȃžēm) | kå̄zȁti (2sg. kå̃žeš) | reči | да кажува | da kažuva |
to show | *kāzàti | v. | показывать | pokazyvat' | пока́зувати | pokázuvaty | показвам | pokazvam | ukázat | ukázať | pokazać | kázati (kȃžēm) | kå̄zȁti (2sg. kå̃žeš) | kázati (kážem) | да покаже | da pokaže |
to sing | *pěti | v. (c) | петь | p'et' (pojú, pojót) | співа́ти | spiváty | пе́я | péja (2sg. péeš) | zpívat (zpívám), pět (pěji) | spievať | śpiewać (śpiewam), piać (pieję) [table 37] | p(j)evati | pẹ́ti (pójem) | да пее | da pee | |
to play | *jьgrati | игра́ть | igrát' | гра́ти | hráty | игра́я | igrája | hrát | hrať | grać, igrać | igrati | igráti, igráti se | да игра | da igra | ||
can, to be able to | *mogti | мочь | moč' | могти | mohtý | мога́, мо́же | mogá, móže | moci, moct | môcť | móc | mȍći | móči | да може | da može | ||
to flow | *tekti | течь | t'eč' | текти | tektý | тека́, те́че | teká, téče | téci, téct | tiecť | ciec, cieknąć | teći | teči | да тече | da teče | ||
to freeze | *mьrznǫti | замерзáть | zam'erzát' | замерзáти | zamerzáty | замръ́звам | zamrǝ́zvam | zamrznout | mrznúť, zmrznúť, zamrznúť | marznąć, zamarzać | mrznuti, zamrznuti | zamrzniti | да замрзне | da zamrzne | ||
to swell | *puxnǫti | пу́хнуть | púxnut' | пу́хнути | púxnuty | подпу́хвам, оти́чам, поду́вам се | podpúxvam, otíčam, podúvam se | opuchnout, otéct | puchnúť, opuchnúť, (arch.) otiecť | puchnąć, rozdąć (się) | oteknuti, oteći | oteči | да потечи | da poteči | ||
sun | *sъlnьce | со́лнце | sólnc'e /sónce/ | со́нце | sónce | слъ́нце | slǝ́nce | slunce | slnko, (arch.) slnce | słońce | sunce | sọ̑nce | сонце | sonce | ||
moon | *luna, *měsęcь | луна́, ме́сяц | luná, m'és'ac | місяць | mís'ac' | луна́, месец, месечина | luná, mesec, mesečina | měsíc | mesiac, (poet.) luna | księżyc, OPl. miesiąc | m(j)esec | mẹ́sec | месечина | mesečina | ||
star | *gvězda | звезда́ | zv'ezdá | зірка | zírka | звезда́ | zvezdá | hvězda | hviezda | gwiazda | zv(ij)ezda | zvẹ́zda | ѕвезда | dzvezda | ||
water | *vodà | f. ā (c) | вода́ | vodá (acc. vódu) | вода́ | vodá | вода́ | vodá | voda | voda | woda | vòda (acc. vȍdu) | vodȁ (acc. vȍdu) | vóda | вода | voda |
rain | *dъždь | дождь | dožd' /došš', došt'/ | дощ | došč | дъжд | dǝžd | déšť | dážď | deszcz, OPl. deżdż (gen. deszczu/dżdżu) | kiša, dažd | dǝž | дожд | dožd | ||
river | *rěka | река́ | r'eká | рі́чка | ríčka | река́ | reká | řeka | rieka | rzeka | r(ij)eka | rẹ́ka | река | reka | ||
lake | *(j)ezero | о́зеро | óz'ero | о́зеро | ózero | е́зеро | ézero | jezero | jazero | jezioro | jezero | jẹ́zero | езеро | ezero | ||
sea | *more, *morě | мо́ре | mór'e | мо́ре | móre | море́ | moré | moře | more | morze | more | mọ̑rje | море | more | ||
salt | *solь | соль | sol' | сіль | sil' | сол | sol | sůl | soľ | sól | so(l) | sọ̑l | сол | sol | ||
stone | *kamy | ка́мень | kám'en' | ка́мінь | kámin' | ка́мък, камъни (pl.) | kámǝk, kamǝni (pl.) | kámen | kameň | kamień (dim. kamyk) | kamen | kamen | камен | kamen | ||
sand | *pěsъkъ | песо́к | p'esók | пісо́к | pisók | пя́сък | pjásǝk | písek | piesok | piasek | p(ij)esak | pẹ́sek | песок | pesok | ||
dust | *porxъ | пыль | pyl' | пил | pyl | прах | prax | prach | prach | pył, kurz, proch | prašina, prah | prah | прав, прашина | prav, prašina | ||
earth | *zemľà | f. jā (b/c) | земля́ | z'eml'á | земля́ | zeml'á | земя́ | zemjá | země | zem, zemina | ziemia | zèmlja (acc. zȅmlju) | zemļȁ (acc. zȅmļu) | zémlja | земја | zemja |
way | *pǫ̃tь | m. i (b) | путь | put' | шлях | šl'ax | път | pǝt | pouť (fem.) [table 38] | cesta, púť ( [table 38] ) | droga, (arch. pątnik [table 39] ) OPl. pąć | pȗt (púta) | pũt (pũta) | pǫ́t | пат | pat |
mountain | *gorà | fem. ā (c) | гора́ | gorá | гора́ | horá | гора́, планина | gorá, [table 40] planina | hora | hora | góra | gòra (gȍru), planina | gorȁ (gȍru) | góra | гора, планина | gora, planina |
cloud | *tǫča | ту́ча, о́блако | túča, óblako | хмара | xmára | о́блак | óblak | oblak | oblak, mrak | chmura, obłok | oblak | oblák | облак | oblak | ||
fog | *mьglà | мгла, туман | mgla, tuman | імла, туман, мряковина | imlá, tumán, mr'ákovyna | мъгла́ | mǝglá | mlha | hmla | mgła | magla | megla | магла | magla | ||
sky | *nȅbo | не́бо | n'ebo | не́бо | nébo | небе́ | nebé | nebe | nebo | niebo | nebo | nebọ̑ | небо | nebo | ||
wind | *vě̀trъ | m. o (a) | ве́тер | v'ét'er | вітер | víter | вя́тър | vjátǝr | vítr | vietor | wiatr | v(j)ȅtar (v(j)ȅtra) | vȉtar (vȉtra) | vệtǝr | ветер | veter |
snow | *sněgъ | снег | sn'eg | сніг | snih | сняг | snjag | sníh | sneh | śnieg | sn(ij)eg | snẹ́g | снег | sneg | ||
frost | *mòrzъ | моро́з | moróz | моро́з | moróz | мраз | mraz | mráz | mráz | mróz | mrȁz | mrȁz | мраз | mraz | ||
ice | *ledъ | лёд | l'od | лід | lid | лед | led | led | ľad | lód | led | lẹ́d | лед | led | ||
smoke | *dymъ | дым | dym | дим | dym | дим, пу́шек | dim, púšek | dým | dym | dym | dim | dim | чад, дим | čad, dim | ||
fire | *ognь | ого́нь | ogón' | вого́нь | vohón' | о́гън | ógǝn | oheň | oheň | ogień (ognia) | vatra, oganj | ogenj | оган | ogan | ||
ash | *pepelъ | пе́пел | p'ép'el | попіл | pópil | пе́пел | pépel | popel | popol | popiół | pepeo | pepẹ́l | пепел | pepel | ||
to burn | *gorěti, *paliti | горе́ть | gor'ét' | горіти | horíty | горя́, паля́ | gorjá, paljá | hořet | horieť | palić, arch. gorzeć | goreti/goriti | gorẹ́ti | да гори | da gori | ||
(dark) red | *čьrmьnъ | adj. o | č'er'emnój/č'er'ómnyj (dial.) [table 41] | червоний | červónyj | червено | červeno | (arch.) čermný/črmný (Kott) | čermák (person with a red-brown face, hair) | (dial. czermny) | crveno | črmljen | црвено | crveno | ||
(bright) red | *čьrv(j)enъ | adj. o | č'er'evl'onyj (obs.) [table 42] | червоний | červónyj | черве́н | červén | červený | červený | czerwony, czerwień | cr̀ven | rdeč | црвен/но/на/ни | crven/no/na/ni | ||
green | *zelènъ | adj. o (b) | зелёный | z'el'ónyj | зелений | zelényj | зеле́н | zelén | zelený | zelený | zielony, zieleń | zèlen, zelèna, zelèno | zelẽn, zelenȁ, zelenȍ | zelèn, zeléna | зелен/но/на/ни | zelen/no/na/ni |
yellow | *žьltъ | adj. o | жёлтый | žóltyj | жовтий | žóvtyj | жълт | žǝlt | žlutý | žltý | żółty, żółć, żółcień | žȗt, f. žúta | žȗt, f. žūtȁ, n. žȗto | rumén, žȏłt, žółta | жолт/то/та/ти | żolt/то/та/ти |
white | *bělъ | бе́лый | b'élyj | білий | bílyj | бял | bjal | bílý | biely | biały, biel | b(ij)eli | bẹ́l | бел/о/а/и | bel/о/а/и | ||
black | *čьrnъ | чёрный | č'órnyj | чорний | čórnyj | че́рен | čéren | černý | ťierny | czarny, czerń | crn | črn | црн/о/а/и | crn/о/а/и | ||
night | *noktь | ночь | noč' | ніч | nič | нощ | nošt | noc | noc | noc | noć | nọ̑č | ноќ | nokj | ||
day | *dьnь | день | d'en' | день | den' | ден | den | den | deň | dzień | dan (dana) | dan (dnẹ́, dnẹ́va) | ден | den | ||
year | *godъ, *rokъ | год | god | рік | rik | годи́на | godína | rok | rok | rok(pl.lata), godzina [table 43] | godina | lẹ́to | година | godina | ||
warm | *teplъ, *toplъ | тёплый | t'óplyj | теплий | téplyj | то́пло | tóplo | teplý | teplý | ciepły | topao | toplo | топло | toplo | ||
cool, cold | *xoldьnъ | adj. o (c) | холо́дный | xolódnyj | холо́дний | xolódnyj | хла́д/ен(но/на/ни), студен(о/а/и) | xlád/en (no/na/ni), studen(o/a/i) | chladný | chladný, studený | chłodny | hládan | hlå̑dan | hládǝn | ладно | ladno |
full | *pьlnъ | по́лный | pólnyj | по́вний | póvnyj | пъ́лен | pǝ́len | plný | plný | pełny, pełen | pun | pọ̑łn | полн | poln | ||
new | *novъ | но́вый | nóvyj | новий | novýj | нов | nov | nový | novy | nowy | nov | nov | нов | nov | ||
old | *starъ | ста́рый | stáryj | старий | starýj | стар | star | starý | starý | stary | star | star | стар | star | ||
good | *dobrъ | хоро́ший, добрый | xoróš'ij, dobryj | добрий | dóbryj | добъ́р | dobǝ́r | dobrý | dobrý | dobry | dobar | dọ̑ber | добар, добро | dobar, dobro | ||
bad | *zъlъ | adj. o | злой | zloj | злий, поганий | zlyj, pohányj | лош, зъл | loš, зǝ́л | zlý | zlý | zły | loš, zȁo, zlȁ, zlȍ | zli, zlà, zlo | лош, зол, зла | loš, zol, zla | |
rotten | *gnjilъ | гнило́й | gn'ilój | гнилий | hnylýj | гнил | gnil | shnilý | zhnitý | zgniły | truo, gnjilo | gnil | гнил | gnil | ||
dirty | гря́зный | gr'áznyj | брудний | brudnýj | мръ́сен | mrǝ́sen | špinavý | špinavý | brudny | prljav | umázan | валкано | valkan | |||
straight | *prostъ, *pravъ | прямо́й | pr'amój | прямий | pr'amýj | прав | prav | přímý | priamy, rovný | prosty; prawy, [table 44] równy [table 45] | prav | raven | прав, рамен | prav, ramen | ||
round | *krǫglъ | кру́глый | krúglyj | круглий | krúhlyj | кръ́гъл | krǝ́gǝl | kulatý / okrouhlý | okrúhly | krągły/okrągły | okrugao | okrọ̑gel | кружно, округло | kružno, okruglo | ||
sharp | *ostrъ | о́стрый | óstryj | го́стрий | hóstryj | о́стър | óstǝr | ostrý | ostrý | ostry | oštar | ọ̑stǝr | остро | ostro | ||
dull | *tǫpъ | тупо́й | tupój | тупий | typýj | тъп | tup | tupý | tupý | tępy | tup | tọ̑p | тапо | tapo | ||
smooth | *gladъkъ | гла́дкий, ро́вный | gládk'ij, róvnyj | гладкий, плавний | hládkyj, plávnyj | гла́дък, ра́вен | gládǝk, ráven | hladký | hladký | gładki | gladak | gladek | мазно | mazno | ||
wet | *mokrъ | мо́крый | mókryj | мо́крий | mókryj | мо́кър | mókǝr | mokrý | mokrý | mokry | mokar | mọ̑ker | мокро | mokro | ||
dry | *suxъ | сухо́й | suxój | сухий | suxýj | сух | sux | suchý | suchý | suchy | suh/suv | suh | суво | suvo | ||
correct | пра́вильный | práv'il'nyj | пра́вильний, вірний | právyl'nyj, vírnyj | пра́вилен | právilen | správný | správny | poprawny, właściwy, prawilny(slang) | pravilan | pravílen | правилно, точно | pravilno, točno | |||
right | *pravъ | пра́вый | právyj | правий | právyj | де́сен | désen | pravý | pravý | prawy | desni | dẹ́sǝn | десно | desno | ||
left | *lěvъ | ле́вый | lévyj | лі́вий | l'ívyj | ляв | ljav | levý | ľavý | lewy | l(ij)evi | lẹ́vi | лево | levo | ||
far | *dalekъ | далёкий | dal'ók'ij | далекий | dalékyj | дале́чен | daléčen | daleký | ďaleký | daleki | dalek | daleč, daljen | далеку | daleku | ||
near | *blizъ | бли́зкий | bl'ízk'ij | близький | blyz'kýj | бли́зък | blízǝk | blízký | blízky | bliski | blizak | blizu | близу, блиско | blizu, blisko | ||
at | *pri, *u | prep./pref. | при, у | pr'i, u | при, на, в | pry, na, v | при, у, на | pri, u, na | při, u | pri, na | przy, u | u; u- | pri | кaj | kaj | |
on | *na | prep. | на | na | на | na | на | na | při, u | pri, na | na | na | na | |||
in(to) | *vъ(n) | prep. | в | v; vn- | у, в, ув (dialectal) | u, v, uv(dialectical) | в(във) | v(vǝv) | v; v(n)- | v/vo, do | w(e); wn- | u; va- | v | в | v | |
with | *sъ(n) | с | s | з, із, зо/зі | z, iz, zo/zi | с(със) | s(sǝs) | s | s, so | z | s(a) | s, z | со | so | ||
and | (j)ь, *a | и, а | i, a | і, й, та, а ("but") | i, j, ta, a | и, а | i, a | a, i | a, i | i, a | i, a | in, pa | и, а | i, a | ||
if | *(j)ako | е́сли | jésl'i | як, якщо́, коли | jam, jakščó, kolý | ако́ | akó | jestli | ak | jeśli, jeżeli, jak(coll.) | ako, ukoliko | če, ko | ако | ako | ||
because | *dělja, *dьlja, děljьma | потому́ что | potomú čto /što/ | бо, тому що, для (archaic "because of") | bo, tomú ščo, dl'a | защо́то | zaštóto | protože | pretože | bo, dlatego że, ponieważ, za to, [table 46] temu, że(coll. or dial.), przeto, że(arch. | zato (što, jer) | zatọ̑, zatọ̑ ker | затоа што, зашто | zatoa što, zašto | ||
name | *(j)ьmę | и́мя | ím'a | ім'я | im'á | и́ме | íme | jméno | meno | imię, arch. miano | ime | imẹ́ | име | ime |
Transcription of Bulgarian follows the standard conventions for academic transliteration of Cyrillic, with the exception that Cyrillic ъ is represented as ǝ instead of ă for ease of reading, particularly when combined with a stress mark (ǝ́ instead of ắ). This is a one-to-one transliteration that directly represents the spelling of Cyrillic. This transliteration also represents Bulgarian phonology quite well (unlike the situation in Russian).
Transcription of Russian is based on the same standard, but deviates from it in order to consistently represent palatalization (always written with a following apostrophe, e.g. l', n', t', v') and the phoneme /j/ (always written j), both of which are spelled in multiple ways in Cyrillic. The following indicates how to convert between the two:
Cyrillic letters | Letter class | Academic transliteration | This article's transcription |
---|---|---|---|
а э ы о у | Non-palatal vowels | a è y o u | a e y o u |
я е и ё ю | Palatal vowels | ja e i ë ju | If following a consonant letter, a e i o u with preceding apostrophe ('); elsewhere, ja je ji jo ju. |
й ў | Semivowels | j ŭ | same |
ь | Soft sign | ' | same |
ъ | Hard sign | '' | not written |
щ | A consonant sign | šč | šš' |
The result is that this article's transcription is almost directly phonemic, making it significantly easier for readers not familiar with the complications of Cyrillic spelling. Note that the transcription used here continues the standard practice of representing the Cyrillic letters ы и as y i, although they are normally considered allophones of each other. This is because the pronunciation of the two letters is significantly different, and Russian ы normally continues Common Slavic *y [ɨ], which was a separate phoneme.
The letter щ is conventionally written št in Bulgarian, šč in Russian. This article writes šš' in Russian to reflect the modern pronunciation [ɕɕ].
Both transcriptions indicate stress with an acute accent (á é í ó ú ý ǝ́). Stress is indicated in Cyrillic in the same fashion, except with the letter ё, which is always stressed.
The transcription used in this article is morphophonemic rather than strictly phonemic, i.e. it writes the underlying phonemes rather than the phonemes actually heard when pronounced. The difference occurs particularly in the representation of unstressed vowels, where multiple underlying phonemes merge. For example, underlying e and i merge into the same sound when unstressed, but the difference is revealed in related forms based on the same root: e.g. z'eml'á[zʲɪmˈlʲæ] "land" has accusative z'éml'u[ˈzʲemlʲʉ], but z'imá[zʲɪˈma] "winter" has accusative z'ímu[ˈzʲimu]. When the transcription (which is derived from the spelling) disagrees with the actual morphophonemic pronunciation, the latter is indicated specially, e.g. čto /što/; š'it' /šyt'/; ž'óltyj /žóltyj/; ž'ená /žená/ [ʐɨˈna]; sólnc'e /sónce/ [ˈsont͡sə]. This occurs mostly with the letters š, ž, c, which are normally written palatal but pronounced non-palatal; but it is also due to occasional assimilations. Note that the rules for unstressed vowels still need to be applied (see below).
After the three palatalizations of Proto-Slavic, dialectal variation became more apparent. Some dialects (such as Proto-East Slavic), applied the second regressive palatalization across an intervening *v. [1]
Also, the realization of the palatalizations' sibilants varied a little amongst dialects. Belić (1921) argues that the phonetic character of the palatalizations was uniform throughout Common Slavic and that West Slavic languages developed *š later on by analogy. [2] In all dialects (except for Lechitic), [dz] was deaffricated to [z]: [1]
The final cutoff point for the Proto-Slavic period was the change of *ě to *a after palatal consonants and *j, which then created *ča/*ka contrasts. [3] This, and the shortening and elision of weak yers (*ь/ĭ and *ъ/ŭ) (see Havlík's law) that created newly formed closed syllables [4] ended the period of syllabic synharmony characteristic of Common Slavic.
For many Common Slavic dialects—including most of West Slavic, all but the northernmost portions of East Slavic, and some western parts of South Slavic— *g lenited from a voiced velar plosive to a voiced velar fricative ([ɡ] > [ɣ]). Because this change was not universal and because it did not occur in a number of East Slavic dialects (such as Belarusian and South Russian) until after the application of Havlík's law, Shevelov (1977) calls into question early projections of this change and postulates three independent instigations of lenition, dating the earliest to before 900 AD and the latest to the early thirteenth century. [5]
Because the reflexes for the nasal vowels *ę and *ǫ differ so widely, it's very likely that their phonetic value in Late Proto-Slavic was not uniform. [6]
In phonetics, palatalization or palatization is a way of pronouncing a consonant in which part of the tongue is moved close to the hard palate. Consonants pronounced this way are said to be palatalized and are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by affixing the letter ⟨ʲ⟩ to the base consonant. Palatalization is not phonemic in English, but it is in Slavic languages such as Russian and Ukrainian, Finnic languages such as Estonian and Võro, as well as in other languages such as Irish, Marshallese, and Kashmiri.
Russian is an East Slavic language of the Indo-European family. All Indo-European languages are descendants of a single prehistoric language, reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European, spoken sometime in the Neolithic era. Although no written records remain, much of the culture and religion of the Proto-Indo-European people can also be reconstructed based on their daughter cultures traditionally and continuing to inhabit most of Europe and South Asia, areas to where the Proto-Indo-Europeans migrated from their original homeland.
The phonology of the Hungarian language is notable for its process of vowel harmony, the frequent occurrence of geminate consonants and the presence of otherwise uncommon palatal stops.
The history of the Slavic languages stretches over 3000 years, from the point at which the ancestral Proto-Balto-Slavic language broke up into the modern-day Slavic languages which are today natively spoken in Eastern, Central and Southeastern Europe as well as parts of North Asia and Central Asia.
This article deals with the phonology of the standard Ukrainian language.
The phonological system of the Polish language is similar in many ways to those of other Slavic languages, although there are some characteristic features found in only a few other languages of the family, such as contrasting postalveolar and alveolo-palatal fricatives and affricates. The vowel system is relatively simple, with just six oral monophthongs and arguably two nasals in traditional speech, while the consonant system is much more complex.
There is significant phonological variation among the various Yiddish dialects. The description that follows is of a modern Standard Yiddish that was devised during the early 20th century and is frequently encountered in pedagogical contexts.
This article discusses the phonological system of the Czech language.
Lithuanian has eleven vowels and 45 consonants, including 22 pairs of consonants distinguished by the presence or absence of palatalization. Most vowels come in pairs which are differentiated through length and degree of centralization.
This article discusses the phonological system of the Bulgarian language.
Serbo-Croatian is a South Slavic language with four national standards. The Eastern Herzegovinian Neo-Shtokavian dialect forms the basis for Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian.
This article discusses the phonological system of standard Russian based on the Moscow dialect. For an overview of dialects in the Russian language, see Russian dialects. Most descriptions of Russian describe it as having five vowel phonemes, though there is some dispute over whether a sixth vowel,, is separate from. Russian has 34 consonants, which can be divided into two types:
French exhibits perhaps the most extensive phonetic changes of any of the Romance languages. Similar changes are seen in some of the northern Italian regional languages, such as Lombard or Ligurian. Most other Romance languages are significantly more conservative phonetically, with Spanish, Italian, and especially Sardinian showing the most conservatism, and Portuguese, Occitan, Catalan, and Romanian showing moderate conservatism.
This article is about the phonology and phonetics of standard Slovene.
Proto-Slavic is the unattested, reconstructed proto-language of all Slavic languages. It represents Slavic speech approximately from the 2nd millennium BC through the 6th century AD. As with most other proto-languages, no attested writings have been found; scholars have reconstructed the language by applying the comparative method to all the attested Slavic languages and by taking into account other Indo-European languages.
The phonology of Old Saxon mirrors that of the other ancient Germanic languages, and also, to a lesser extent, that of modern West Germanic languages such as English, Dutch, Frisian, German, and Low German.
As a member of the dialect continuum of Romance languages, Catalan displays linguistic features similar to those of its closest neighbors. The following features represent in some cases unique changes in the evolution of Catalan from Vulgar Latin; other features are common in other Romance-speaking areas.
The Proto-Slavic language, the hypothetical ancestor of the modern-day Slavic languages, developed from the ancestral Proto-Balto-Slavic language, which is the parent language of the Balto-Slavic languages. The first 2,000 years or so consist of the pre-Slavic era, a long period during which none of the later dialectal differences between Slavic languages had yet emerged. The last stage in which the language remained without internal differences that later characterize different Slavic languages can be dated around AD 500 and is sometimes termed Proto-Slavic proper or Early Common Slavic. Following this is the Common Slavic period, during which the first dialectal differences appeared but the entire Slavic-speaking area continued to function as a single language, with sound changes tending to spread throughout the entire area. By around 1000, the area had broken up into separate East Slavic, West Slavic and South Slavic languages, and in the following centuries it broke up further into the various modern Slavic languages of which the following are extant: Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn and Ukrainian in the East; Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian and the Sorbian languages in the West, and Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian in the South.
Palatalization is a historical-linguistic sound change that results in a palatalized articulation of a consonant or, in certain cases, a front vowel. Palatalization involves change in the place or manner of articulation of consonants, or the fronting or raising of vowels. In some cases, palatalization involves assimilation or lenition.
Kerkrade dialect is a Ripuarian dialect spoken in Kerkrade and its surroundings, including Herzogenrath in Germany. It is spoken in all social classes, but the variety spoken by younger people in Kerkrade is somewhat closer to Standard Dutch.