Slide rule scale

Last updated

Keuffel and Esser 7" slide rule (5" scale, 1954) Keuffel and Esser-Model 4181-1 Log log Duplex Decitrig slide rule-IMG 5821-white (cropped).jpg
Keuffel and Esser 7" slide rule (5" scale, 1954)

A slide rule scale is a line with graduated markings inscribed along the length of a slide rule used for mathematical calculations. The earliest such device had a single logarithmic scale for performing multiplication and division, but soon an improved technique was developed which involved two such scales sliding alongside each other. Later, multiple scales were provided with the most basic being logarithmic but with others graduated according to the mathematical function required.

Contents

Few slide rules have been designed for addition and subtraction, rather the main scales are used for multiplication and division and the other scales are for mathematical calculations involving trigonometric, exponential and, generally, transcendental functions. Before they were superseded by electronic calculators in the 1970s, slide rules were an important type of portable calculating instrument.

Slide rule design

A slide rule consists of a body [note 1] and a slider that can be slid along within the body and both of these have numerical scales inscribed on them. On duplex rules the body and/or the slider have scales on the back as well as the front. [2] The slider's scales may be visible from the back or the slider may need to be slid right out and replaced facing the other way round. A cursor (also called runner or glass) containing one (or more) hairlines [note 2] may be slid along the whole rule so that corresponding readings, front and back, can be taken from the various scales on the body and slider. [3]

History

In about 1620, Edmund Gunter introduced what is now known as Gunter's line as one element of the Gunter's sector he invented for mariners. The line, inscribed on wood, was a single logarithmic scale going from 1 to 100. It had no sliding parts but by using a pair of dividers it was possible to multiply and divide numbers. [note 3] The form with a single logarithmic scale eventually developed into such instruments as Fuller's cylindrical slide rule. In about 1622, but not published until 1632, William Oughtred invented linear and circular slide rules which had two logarithmic scales that slid beside each other to perform calculations. In 1654 the linear design was developed into a wooden body within which a slider could be fitted and adjusted. [6] [7]

Scales

Aristo 0972 HyperLog front.jpg
Aristo 0972 HyperLog back.jpg
Front and back of Aristo 0972 HyperLog duplex rule (1973)

Simple slide rules will have a C and D scale for multiplication and division, most likely an A and B for squares and square roots, and possibly CI and K for reciprocals and cubes. [8] In the early days of slide rules few scales were provided and no labelling was necessary. However, gradually the number of scales tended to increase. Amédée Mannheim introduced the A, B, C and D labels in 1859 and, after that, manufacturers began to adopt a somewhat standardised, though idiosyncratic, system of labels so the various scales could be quickly identified. [8] [3]

Advanced slide rules have many scales and they are often designed with particular types of user in mind, for example electrical engineers or surveyors. [9] [10] There are rarely scales for addition and subtraction but a workaround is possible. [note 4] [11] The rule illustrated is an Aristo 0972 HyperLog, which has 31 scales. [note 5] The scales in the table below are those appropriate for general mathematical use rather than for specific professions.

Slide rule scales [8] [14]
Labelformulascale typerange of xrange on scalenumerical range (approx)Increase / decrease [note 6] comment
Cxfundamental scale1 to 101 to 101 to 10increaseOn slider
Dxfundamental scale used with C1 to 101 to 101 to 10increaseOn body
Ax2 square 1 to 101 to 1001 to 100increaseOn body. Two log cycles at half the scale of C/D. [15] [note 7]
Bx2 square 1 to 101 to 1001 to 100increaseOn slider. Two log cycles at half the scale of C/D. [15] [note 7]
CFxC foldedπ to 10ππ to 10π3.142 to 31.42increaseOn slider
Charccosh(x) hyperbolic cosine 1 to 10arccosh(1.0) to arccosh(10)0 to 2.993increasenote: cosh(x)=
√(1-sinh2(x)) (P)
CI1/x reciprocal C1 to 101/0.1 to 1/1.010 to 1decreaseOn slider. C scale in reverse direction [15]
DFxD foldedπ to 10ππ to 10π3.142 to 31.42increaseOn body
DI1/x reciprocal D1 to 101/0.1 to 1/1.010 to 1decreaseOn body. D scale in reverse direction [15]
Kx3 cube 1 to 101 to 1031 to 1000increaseThree cycles at one third the scale of D [15]
L, Lg or M [note 8] log10x Mantissa of log101 to 100 to 1.00 to 1.0increasehence a linear scale
LL0e0.001xlog-log1 to 10e0.001 to e0.011.001 to 1.010increase
LL1e0.01xlog-log1 to 10e0.01 to e0.11.010 to 1.105increase
LL2e0.1xlog-log1 to 10e0.1 to e1.105 to 2.718increase
LL3, LL or Eexlog-log1 to 10e to e102.718 to 22026increase
LL00 or LL/0e-0.001xlog-log1 to 10e−0.001
to e−0.01		0.999 to 0.990decrease
LL01 or LL/1e-0.01xlog-log1 to 10e−0.01
to e−0.1		0.990 to 0.905decrease
LL02 or LL/2e-0.1xlog-log1 to 10e−0.1
to 1/e		0.905 to 0.368decrease
LL03 or LL/3e−xlog-log1 to 101/e
to e−10		0.368 to 0.00045decrease
P√(1-x2)Pythagorean [note 9] 0.1 to 1.0√(1-0.12) to 00.995 to 0decreasecalculating cosine from sine at small angles (ST)
H1√(1+x2)Hyperbolic [note 9] 0.1 to 1.0√(1+0.12) to √(1+1.02)1.005 to 1.414increaseSet x on C or D scale.
H2√(1+x2)Hyperbolic [note 9] 1 to 10√(1+12) to √(1+102)1.414 to 10.05increaseSet x on C or D scale.
R1, W1 or Sq1√x square root 1 to 101 to √101 to 3.162increasefor numbers with odd number of digits
R2, W2 or Sq2√x square root 10 to 100√10 to 103.162 to 10increasefor numbers with even number of digits
Sarcsin(x) sine 0.1 to 1arcsin(0.1) to arcsin(1.0)5.74° to 90°increase and decrease (red)also with reverse angles in red for cosine. See S scale in detail image.
Sh1arcsinh(x) hyperbolic sine 0.1 to 1.0arcsinh(0.1) to arcsinh(1.0)0.0998 to 0.881increasenote: cosh(x)=
√(1-sinh2(x)) (P)
Sh2arcsinh(x) hyperbolic sine 1 to 10arcsinh(1.0) to arcsinh(10)0.881 to 3.0increasenote: cosh(x)=
√(1-sinh2(x)) (P)
STarcsin(x) and arctan(x) sine and tan of small angles0.01 to 0.1arcsin(0.01) to arcsin(0.1)0.573° to 5.73°increasealso arctan of same x values
T, T1 or T3arctan(x) tangent 0.1 to 1.0arctan(0.1) to arctan(1.0)5.71° to 45°increaseused with C or D.
Tarctan(x) tangent 1.0 to 10.0arctan(1.0) to arctan(10)45° to 84.3°increaseUsed with CI or DI. Also with reverse angles in red for cotangent.
T2arctan(x) tangent 1.0 to 10.0arctan(1.0) to arctan(10)45° to 84.3°increaseused with C or D
Tharctanh(x) hyperbolic tangent 1 to <10arctanh(0.1) to arctanh(1.0)0.1 to 3.0increaseused with C or D

Notes about table

  1. Some scales have high values at the left and low on the right. These are marked as "decrease" in the table above. On slide rules these are often inscribed in red rather than black or they may have arrows pointing left along the scale. See P and DI scales in detail image.
  2. In slide rule terminology, "folded" means a scale that starts and finishes at values offset from a power of 10. Often folded scales start at π but may be extended lengthways to, say, 3.0 and 35.0. Folded scales with the code subscripted with "M" start and finish at log10e to simplify conversion between base-10 and natural logarithms. When subscripted "/M", they fold at ln(10).
  3. For mathematical reasons some scales either stop short of or extend beyond the D = 1 and 10 points. For example, arctanh(x) approaches ∞ (infinity) as x approaches 1, so the scale stops short.
  4. In slide rule terminology "log-log" means the scale is logarithmic applied over an inherently logarithmic scale.
  5. Slide rule annotation generally ignores powers of 10. However, for some scales, such as log-log, decimal points are relevant and are likely to be marked.

Gauge marks

Detail of some scale labels and gauge marks Aristo 0972 HyperLog (detail of labels).jpg
Detail of some scale labels and gauge marks

Gauge marks are often added to the scales either marking important constants (e.g. π at 3.14159) or useful conversion coefficients (e.g. ρ" at 180*60*60/π or 206.3x103 to find sine and tan of small angles [18] ). [19] [20] A cursor may have subsidiary hairlines beside the main one. For example, when one is over kilowatts the other indicates horsepower. [note 10] [20] [21] See π on the A and B scales and ρ" on the C scale in the detail image. The Aristo 0972 has multiple cursor hairlines on its reverse side, as shown in the image above.

Gauge marks [20] [22]
Symbolvaluefunctionpurposecomment
e2.718 Euler's number exponential functions base of natural logarithms
π3.142 π areas/volumes/circumferences of circles/cylinders
c or C1.128√(4/π)ratio diameter to √(area of circle) (different scales)
C' or C13.568√(40/π)
'0.785π/4ratio area of circle to diameter2
M0.3181/πreciprocal π
ρ, ρ0 or 1°0.0175π/180 radians per degree
R57.29180/π degrees per radian
ρ'3.438x10360x180/π arc minutes per radian [18]
ρ"206.3x10360x60x180/π arc seconds per radian [18]
c2.154if no K scale
1n, L or U2.3031/log10eratio loge to log10
N1.341 HP per kW mechanical horsepower

Notes

  1. ↑ The body can also be called frame, base, stock or stator.
  2. ↑ A hairline is a very finely drawn line.
  3. ↑ To multiply two numbers, a and b, a point of the dividers is placed on the 1 marking and the dividers are adjusted so the other point is at a (or a multiple of 10 of a). Keeping the separation of the dividers fixed, one point is moved to b and the second point will indicate axb (or b/a if the second point is placed towards the 1 marking. [4] [5]
  4. ↑ Note that (u+v)=v⋅(u/v+1) and (u-v)=v⋅(u/v-1) To implement this requires adding or subtracting 1 mentally.
  5. ↑ The Aristo 0952 HyperLog was being manufactured in 1973 and is 37.4 centimetres (14.7 in) in length overall with scales as follows. Front: LL00, LL01, LL02, LL03, DF (on the slider CF, CIF, L, CI, C) D, LL3, LL2, LL1 and LL00. Back: H2, Sh2, Th, K, A (on the slider B, T, ST, S, P, C) D, DI, Ch, Sh1, H1. Its gauge marks are π, ρ', ρ, e, 1/e, √2. [12] [13]
  6. ↑ Whether annotations increase or decrease from left to right.
  7. 1 2 R1/R2 often easier to use for square root than A and B. [8]
  8. ↑ The Polish firm Skala had an "M" scale used in right triangle solutions. [16]
  9. 1 2 3 See Savard for special considerations. [17]
  10. ↑ See image above of the back of the Aristo slide rule.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Logarithm</span> Mathematical function, inverse of an exponential function

In mathematics, the logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value, the base, must be raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 1000 is 10 to the 3rd power: 1000 = 103 = 10 × 10 × 10. More generally, if x = by, then y is the logarithm of x to base b, written logbx, so log10 1000 = 3. As a single-variable function, the logarithm to base b is the inverse of exponentiation with base b.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slide rule</span> Mechanical analog computer

A slide rule is a hand-operated mechanical calculator consisting of slidable rulers for evaluating mathematical operations such as multiplication, division, exponents, roots, logarithms, and trigonometry. It is one of the simplest analog computers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exponentiation</span> Arithmetic operation

In mathematics, exponentiation, denoted bn, is an operation involving two numbers: the base, b, and the exponent or power, n. When n is a positive integer, exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base: that is, bn is the product of multiplying n bases: In particular, .

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Logarithmic scale</span> Measurement scale based on orders of magnitude

A logarithmic scale is a method used to display numerical data that spans a broad range of values, especially when there are significant differences between the magnitudes of the numbers involved.

In number theory, Skewes's number is the smallest natural number for which the prime-counting function exceeds the logarithmic integral function It is named for the South African mathematician Stanley Skewes who first computed an upper bound on its value.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prime-counting function</span> Function representing the number of primes less than or equal to a given number

In mathematics, the prime-counting function is the function counting the number of prime numbers less than or equal to some real number x. It is denoted by π(x) (unrelated to the number π).

In mathematics, specifically in calculus and complex analysis, the logarithmic derivative of a function f is defined by the formula where is the derivative of f. Intuitively, this is the infinitesimal relative change in f; that is, the infinitesimal absolute change in f, namely scaled by the current value of f.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William Oughtred</span> English mathematician (1574–1660)

William Oughtred, also Owtred, Uhtred, etc., was an English mathematician and Anglican clergyman. After John Napier discovered logarithms and Edmund Gunter created the logarithmic scales upon which slide rules are based, Oughtred was the first to use two such scales sliding by one another to perform direct multiplication and division. He is credited with inventing the slide rule in about 1622. He also introduced the "×" symbol for multiplication and the abbreviations "sin" and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions.

Sound power or acoustic power is the rate at which sound energy is emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit time. It is defined as "through a surface, the product of the sound pressure, and the component of the particle velocity, at a point on the surface in the direction normal to the surface, integrated over that surface." The SI unit of sound power is the watt (W). It relates to the power of the sound force on a surface enclosing a sound source, in air.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Florian Cajori</span> Swiss-American historian of mathematics

Florian Cajori was a Swiss-American historian of mathematics.

Edmund Gunter, was an English clergyman, mathematician, geometer and astronomer of Welsh descent. He is best remembered for his mathematical contributions, which include the invention of the Gunter's chain, the Gunter's quadrant, and the Gunter's scale. In 1620, he invented the first successful analogue device which he developed to calculate logarithmic tangents.

In mathematics, the von Mangoldt function is an arithmetic function named after German mathematician Hans von Mangoldt. It is an example of an important arithmetic function that is neither multiplicative nor additive.

In mathematics, the explicit formulae for L-functions are relations between sums over the complex number zeroes of an L-function and sums over prime powers, introduced by Riemann (1859) for the Riemann zeta function. Such explicit formulae have been applied also to questions on bounding the discriminant of an algebraic number field, and the conductor of a number field.

The sector, also known as a sector rule, proportional compass, or military compass, was a major calculating instrument in use from the end of the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century. It is an instrument consisting of two rulers of equal length joined by a hinge. A number of scales are inscribed upon the instrument which facilitate various mathematical calculations. It was used for solving problems in proportion, multiplication and division, geometry, and trigonometry, and for computing various mathematical functions, such as square roots and cube roots. Its several scales permitted easy and direct solutions of problems in gunnery, surveying and navigation. The sector derives its name from the fourth proposition of the sixth book of Euclid, where it is demonstrated that similar triangles have their like sides proportional. Some sectors also incorporated a quadrant, and sometimes a clamp at the end of one leg which allowed the device to be used as a gunner's quadrant.

In measurement, the Coggeshall slide rule, also called a carpenter's slide rule, was a slide rule designed by Henry Coggeshall in 1677 to help in measuring the dimensions, surface area, and volume of timber. With his original design and later improvements, Coggeshall's slide rule brought the tool its first practical use outside of mathematical study. It would remain popular for the next few centuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of logarithms</span> Development of the mathematical function

The history of logarithms is the story of a correspondence between multiplication on the positive real numbers and addition on the real number line that was formalized in seventeenth century Europe and was widely used to simplify calculation until the advent of the digital computer. The Napierian logarithms were published first in 1614. E. W. Hobson called it "one of the very greatest scientific discoveries that the world has seen." Henry Briggs introduced common logarithms, which were easier to use. Tables of logarithms were published in many forms over four centuries. The idea of logarithms was also used to construct the slide rule, which was ubiquitous in science and engineering until the 1970s. A breakthrough generating the natural logarithm was the result of a search for an expression of area against a rectangular hyperbola, and required the assimilation of a new function into standard mathematics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Riemann hypothesis</span> Conjecture on zeros of the zeta function

In mathematics, the Riemann hypothesis is the conjecture that the Riemann zeta function has its zeros only at the negative even integers and complex numbers with real part ⁠1/2⁠. Many consider it to be the most important unsolved problem in pure mathematics. It is of great interest in number theory because it implies results about the distribution of prime numbers. It was proposed by Bernhard Riemann, after whom it is named.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elias Allen</span>

Elias Allen was an English maker of sundials and scientific instruments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">A. W. Faber Model 366</span> Unusual slide rule using a system similar to discrete logarithms

The A. W. Faber Model 366 was an unusual model of slide rule, manufactured in Germany by the A. W. Faber Company around 1909, with scales that followed a system invented by Johannes Schumacher (1858-1930) that used discrete logarithms to calculate products of integers without approximation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuller calculator</span> An advanced type of slide rule

The Fuller calculator, sometimes called Fuller's cylindrical slide rule, is a cylindrical slide rule with a helical main scale taking 50 turns around the cylinder. This creates an instrument of considerable precision – it is equivalent to a traditional slide rule 25.40 metres long. It was invented in 1878 by George Fuller, professor of engineering at Queen's University Belfast, and despite its size and price it remained on the market for nearly a century because it outperformed nearly all other slide rules.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "Slide Rule and Planimeter Sections". K&E Catalog 42nd Edition. Keuffel and Esser. 1954. p. 279. Archived from the original on 7 April 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  2. ↑ Johnson (1949), Preface.
  3. 1 2 Savard, John J. G. "Types of Slide Rules". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  4. ↑ "Slide Rules". Museum of HP Calculators. Hewlett Packard. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  5. ↑ Sangwin (2003), p. 4.
  6. ↑ Smith, David E. (1958). History of Mathematics, Vol. II. Dover Publications. p. 205. ISBN   9780486204307.
    Stoll, Cliff (May 2006). "When Slide Rules Ruled". Scientific American. 294 (5): 80–87. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294e..80S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0506-80. PMID   16708492.
    Cajori, Florian (1920). On the history of Gunter's scale and the slide rule during the seventeenth century. University of California press.
  7. ↑ Sangwin (2003).
  8. 1 2 3 4 Marcotte, Eric. "Types of Slide Rules and their Scales". Eric's Slide Rule Site. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  9. ↑ Johnson (1949), pp. 1–6.
  10. ↑ Johnson (1949), pp. 85, 105–106, 133–135, 136–138, 182–184, 189–190.
  11. ↑ Nikitin, Andrey. "Addition and subtraction with slide rule". nsg.upor.net. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  12. ↑ Seale, Steve K. "Aristo 0972 Hyperlog". Steve's Slide Rules. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  13. ↑ Hamann, Christian M. "Aristo - Hyperlog ( 25 cm scales )". public.beuth-hochschule.de. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  14. ↑ Hamman, Christian-M. "The Principle of Slide Rules Appendix D". Beuth University of Applied Sciences. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
    International Slide Rule Museum. "Illustrated Self-Guided Course On How To Use The Slide Rule". sliderulemuseum.com. International Slide Rule Museum. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
    Sphere Research. "Slide Rule Scales Page". www.sphere.bc.ca. Sphere Research. Archived from the original on 6 April 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Savard, John J. G. "How Did a Slide Rule Work?". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  16. ↑ Carrasco, Angel (1 May 2021). "The "M" Scale in Polish Skala Slide Rules" (PDF). Translated by González, Alvaro; Fernández-Raventós, José Gabriel.
  17. ↑ Savard, John J. G. "Special Scales". www.quadibloc.com. Quadribloc. Archived from the original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  18. 1 2 3 Manley, Ron. "Gauge points for small angles". www.sliderules.info. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  19. ↑ Johnson (1949), pp. 144–145, 219.
  20. 1 2 3 Seale, Steve K. "Gauge marks". Steve's Slide Rules. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
  21. ↑ Fernández, J.G. (30 April 2009). "Peripheral Hairlines in FaberCastell Cursors Layout and uses". slidetodoc.com. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
    Manley, Ron. "Cursor hair lines". www.sliderules.info. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  22. ↑ Hamman, Christian-M. "Slide Rules & Slide Calculators: (F) Marks on Slide Rules and their Meaning". Pre-Computer Technical Museum. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.

Works cited

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.