Scientific calculator

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Casio fx-991DE X - a modern digital calculator from Casio with a dot matrix "Natural Textbook" LCD Casio fx-991DE X.JPG
Casio fx-991DE X - a modern digital calculator from Casio with a dot matrix "Natural Textbook" LCD
TI-30XIIS.JPG
TI-84 Plus graphing.jpg
Left: Texas Instruments TI-30X IIS calculator with a two-tier LCD. The upper dot-matrix area can display input formulae and symbols.
Right: The TI-84 Plus—a typical graphing calculator by Texas Instruments
Casio fx-77, a solar-powered digital calculator from the 1980s using a single-line LCD FX-77.JPG
Casio fx-77, a solar-powered digital calculator from the 1980s using a single-line LCD

A scientific calculator is an electronic calculator, either desktop or handheld, designed to perform calculations using basic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and advanced (trigonometric, hyperbolic, etc.) mathematical operations and functions. They have completely replaced slide rules as well as books of mathematical tables and are used in both educational and professional settings.

Contents

In some areas of study and professions scientific calculators have been replaced by graphing calculators and financial calculators which have the capabilities of a scientific calculator along with the capability to graph input data and functions, as well as by numerical computing, computer algebra, statistical, and spreadsheet software packages running on personal computers. Both desktop and mobile software calculators can also emulate many functions of a physical scientific calculator. Standalone scientific calculators remain popular in secondary and tertiary education because computers and smartphones are often prohibited during exams to reduce the likelihood of cheating. [1]

Functions

When electronic calculators were originally marketed they normally had only four or five capabilities (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square root). Modern scientific calculators generally have many more capabilities than the original four- or five-function calculator, and the capabilities differ between manufacturers and models.

The capabilities of a modern scientific calculator include:

In addition, high-end scientific calculators generally include some or all of the following:

While most scientific calculators have traditionally used a single-line display similar to traditional pocket calculators, many of them have more digits (10 to 12), sometimes with extra digits for the floating-point exponent. A few have multi-line displays, with some models from Hewlett-Packard, Texas Instruments (both US manufacturers), Casio, Sharp, and Canon (all three Japanese makers) using dot matrix displays similar to those found on graphing calculators.

Uses

Scientific calculators are used widely in situations that require quick access to certain mathematical functions, especially those that were once looked up in mathematical tables, such as trigonometric functions or logarithms. They are also used for calculations of very large or very small numbers, as in some aspects of astronomy, physics, and chemistry.

They are very often required for math classes from the junior high school level through college, [3] and are generally either permitted or required on many standardized tests covering math and science subjects; [4] as a result, many are sold into educational markets to cover this demand, and some high-end models include features making it easier to translate a problem on a textbook page into calculator input, e.g. by providing a method to enter an entire problem in as it is written on the page using simple formatting tools.

History

HP-35, the world's first scientific pocket calculator, was introduced in 1972 by Hewlett-Packard. It used reverse Polish notation and an LED display. HP-35 Red Dot.jpg
HP-35, the world's first scientific pocket calculator, was introduced in 1972 by Hewlett-Packard. It used reverse Polish notation and an LED display.
TI SR-50 Texas Instruments SR-50.jpg
TI SR-50

The first scientific calculator that included all of the basic ideas above was the programmable Hewlett-Packard HP-9100A, [5] released in 1968, though the Wang LOCI-2 and the Mathatronics Mathatron [6] had some features later identified with scientific calculator designs. The HP-9100 series was built entirely from discrete transistor logic with no integrated circuits, and was one of the first uses of the CORDIC algorithm for trigonometric computation in a personal computing device, as well as the first calculator based on reverse Polish notation (RPN) entry. HP became closely identified with RPN calculators from then on, and even today some of their high-end calculators (particularly the long-lived HP-12C financial calculator and the HP-48 series of graphing calculators) still offer RPN as their default input mode due to having garnered a very large following.

The HP-35, introduced on February 1, 1972, was Hewlett-Packard's first pocket calculator and the world's first handheld scientific calculator. [7] Like some of HP's desktop calculators it used RPN. Introduced at US$395, the HP-35 was available from 1972 to 1975.

Texas Instruments (TI), after the production of several units with scientific notation, introduced a handheld scientific calculator on January 15, 1974, in the form of the SR-50. [8] TI's long-running TI-30 series being one of the most widely used scientific calculators in classrooms.

Casio, Canon, and Sharp, produced their graphing calculators, with Casio's FX series (beginning with the Casio FX-1 in 1972 [9] ). Casio was the first company to produce a Graphing calculator (Casio fx-7000G).

See also

Related Research Articles

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An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reverse Polish notation</span> Mathematics notation where operators follow operands

Reverse Polish notation (RPN), also known as reverse Łukasiewicz notation, Polish postfix notation or simply postfix notation, is a mathematical notation in which operators follow their operands, in contrast to prefix or Polish notation (PN), in which operators precede their operands. The notation does not need any parentheses for as long as each operator has a fixed number of operands.

A computer algebra system (CAS) or symbolic algebra system (SAS) is any mathematical software with the ability to manipulate mathematical expressions in a way similar to the traditional manual computations of mathematicians and scientists. The development of the computer algebra systems in the second half of the 20th century is part of the discipline of "computer algebra" or "symbolic computation", which has spurred work in algorithms over mathematical objects such as polynomials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sinclair Scientific</span> Scientific calculator introduced in 1974

The Sinclair Scientific was a 12-function, pocket-sized scientific calculator introduced in 1974, dramatically undercutting in price other calculators available at the time. The Sinclair Scientific Programmable, released a year later, was advertised as the first budget programmable calculator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Graphing calculator</span> Electronic calculator capable of plotting graphs

A graphing calculator is a handheld computer that is capable of plotting graphs, solving simultaneous equations, and performing other tasks with variables. Most popular graphing calculators are programmable calculators, allowing the user to create customized programs, typically for scientific, engineering or education applications. They have large screens that display several lines of text and calculations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HP-65</span> Programmable handheld calculator with magnetic card reader

The HP-65 is the first magnetic card-programmable handheld calculator. Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1974 at an MSRP of $795, it featured nine storage registers and room for 100 keystroke instructions. It also included a magnetic card reader/writer to save and load programs. Like all Hewlett-Packard calculators of the era and most since, the HP-65 used Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) and a four-level automatic operand stack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HP 33s</span> Scientific calculator by Hewlett-Packard

The HP 33s (F2216A) was a scientific calculator marketed by Hewlett-Packard. It was introduced in 2003 as the successor to the HP 32SII, and discontinued on the introduction of its successor the HP 35s in 2007.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HP-22S</span>

The HP-22S is an electronic calculator from the Hewlett-Packard company which is algebraic and scientific. This calculator is comparable to the HP-32S. A solver was included instead of programming. It had the same constraints as the 32S, lacking enough RAM for serious use. Functions available include TVM and unit conversions. Only single letter variable names are allowed. Marketed as a student calculator, the 22S uses infix notation rather than the reverse polish notation used on some higher-end HP calculators of the same era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TI-30</span> Scientific calculator by Texas Instruments

The TI-30 is a scientific calculator manufactured by Texas Instruments, the first model of which was introduced in 1976. While the original TI-30 was discontinued in 1983 after several design revisions, TI maintains the TI-30 designation as a branding for its low and mid-range scientific calculators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HP calculators</span> Calculator product line by Hewlett-Packard

HP calculators are various calculators manufactured by the Hewlett-Packard company over the years.

There are various ways in which calculators interpret keystrokes. These can be categorized into two main types:

Programmable calculators are calculators that can automatically carry out a sequence of operations under control of a stored program. Most are Turing complete, and, as such, are theoretically general-purpose computers. However, their user interfaces and programming environments are specifically tailored to make performing small-scale numerical computations convenient, rather than general-purpose use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casio ClassPad 300</span> Family of graphing calculators by Casio

The Casio ClassPad 300, ClassPad 330 and fx-CP400 are stylus based touch-screen graphing calculators. It comes with a collection of applications that support self-study, like 3D Graph, Geometry, eActivity, Spreadsheet, etc. A large 160x240 pixel LCD touch screen enables stylus-based operation. It resembles Casio's earlier Pocket Viewer line. HP and Texas Instruments attempted to release similar pen based calculators (the HP Xpander and PET Project, but both were cancelled before release to the market.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HP-16C</span> Programmable calculator produce by Hewlett-Packard

The HP-16C Computer Scientist is a programmable pocket calculator that was produced by Hewlett-Packard between 1982 and 1989. It was specifically designed for use by computer programmers, to assist in debugging. It is a member of the HP Voyager series of programmable calculators. It was the only programmer's calculator ever produced by HP, though many later HP calculators have incorporated most of the 16C's functions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casio 9850 series</span> Series of graphing calculators by Casio

The Casio CFX-9850G series is a series of graphing calculators manufactured by Casio Computer Co., Ltd. from 1996 to 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hewlett-Packard 9100A</span>

The Hewlett-Packard 9100A is an early programmable calculator, first appearing in 1968. HP called it a desktop calculator because, as Bill Hewlett said, "If we had called it a computer, it would have been rejected by our customers' computer gurus because it didn't look like an IBM. We therefore decided to call it a calculator, and all such nonsense disappeared."

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">HP 35s</span> Programmable scientific calculator produced by Hewlett-Packard

The HP 35s (F2215A) is a Hewlett-Packard non-graphing programmable scientific calculator. Although it is a successor to the HP 33s, it was introduced to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the HP-35, Hewlett-Packard's first pocket calculator. HP also released a limited production anniversary edition with shiny black overlay and engraving "Celebrating 35 years".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Software calculator</span> Calculator as a computer program

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casio Algebra FX Series</span> Series of Casio graphing calculators

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References

  1. Crockett, Zachary (22 September 2019). "Is the era of the $100+ graphing calculator coming to an end?". The Hustle. Retrieved 19 February 2024.
  2. "Nostalgia & Fun With Calculators". Homo Ludditus. 10 February 2019.
  3. The State of Mathematics Achievement: NAEP's 1990 Assessment of the Nation and the Trial Assessment of the States. The Center. 1991. ISBN   978-0-16-033144-2.
  4. Review, Princeton; Spaihts, Jonathan (2013-03-05). Cracking the SAT Math 1 & 2 Subject Tests,: 2013-2014 Edition. Random House Information Group. ISBN   978-0-307-94554-9.
  5. HP-9100A/B at hpmuseum.org
  6. "across the editor's desk: COMPUTING AND DATA PROCESSING NEWSLETTER - THE MATHATRON" (PDF). Computers and Automation. XIII (3): 43. Mar 1964. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
  7. HP-35 Scientific Calculator Awarded IEEE Milestone
  8. SR-50 page at datamath.org
  9. Casio FX-1 Desktop Scientific Calculator