Social deprivation

Last updated

Social deprivation is the reduction or prevention of culturally normal interaction between an individual and the rest of society. This social deprivation is included in a broad network of correlated factors that contribute to social exclusion; these factors include mental illness, poverty, poor education, and low socioeconomic status, norms and values.

Contents

Social disfavour is an uncommon synonym of social deprivation that some authors or scientific fields use. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Social isolation is the lack of social contacts and having few people to interact with regularly. [5]

Overview

The term "social deprivation" is slightly ambiguous and lacks a concrete definition. Several important aspects are consistently found within research on the subject. With social deprivation one may have limited access to the social world due to factors such as low socioeconomic status or poor education. The socially deprived may experience "a deprivation of basic capabilities due to a lack of freedom, rather than merely low income". [6] This lack of freedoms may include reduced opportunity, political voice, or dignity. [6]

Part of the confusion in defining social deprivation seems to stem from its apparent similarity to social exclusion. Social deprivation may be correlated with or contribute to social exclusion, which is when a member in a particular society is ostracized by other members of the society. The excluded member is denied access to the resources that allow for healthy social, economic, and political interaction. [7] Pierson has identified five key factors that set social exclusion in motion – poverty, lack of access to jobs, denial of social supports or peer networks, exclusion from services, and negative attitude of the local neighborhood. It is also associated with abusive caretaking, developmental delay, mental illness, and subsequent suicide.

Although a person may be socially deprived or excluded, they will not necessarily develop mental illness or perpetuate the cycle of deprivation. Such groups and individuals may have completely normal development and retain a strong sense of community.

Early development

Research on social deprivation is based primarily on observational and self-report measures. This has provided an understanding of how social deprivation is linked to lifespan development and mental illness.

Critical periods

A critical period refers to the window of time during which a human needs to experience a particular environmental stimulus for proper development to occur. In instances of social deprivation, particularly for children, social experiences tend to be less varied and development may be delayed or hindered.

Feral children

In severe cases of social deprivation or exclusion, children may not be exposed to normal social experiences. Language provides a good example of the importance of periods in development. If a child has limited exposure to language before a certain age, language is difficult or impossible to obtain. [8] Social behaviors and certain physical developments also have critical periods, often resisting rehabilitation or later exposure to proper stimuli. [9]

Feral children provide an example of the effects of severe social deprivation during critical developmental periods. There have been several recorded cases in history of children emerging from the wilderness in late childhood or early adolescence, having presumably been abandoned at an early age. [10] These children had no language skills, limited social understanding, and could not be rehabilitated. Genie, a contemporary victim of social deprivation, had severely limited human contact from 20 months until 13.5 years of age. At the time of her discovery by social workers, Genie was unable to talk, chew solid foods, stand or walk properly, or control bodily functions and impulsive behaviours. Although Genie was able to learn individual words, she was never able to speak grammatical English. [10] These children lacked important social and environmental conditions in childhood and were subsequently unable to develop into normal, functioning adults.

Brain development

Social deprivation in early childhood development can also cause neurocognitive deficits in the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans reveal drastic reductions in areas such as the prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe, amygdala, hippocampus, and orbitofrontal gyrus of socially deprived children. These areas are associated with higher-order cognitive processing such as memory, emotion, thinking, and rationalization. [11] Further damage occurs in the white matter of the uncinate fasciculus. This structure is responsible for providing a major pathway of communication between areas for higher cognitive and emotional functioning, such as the amygdala and frontal lobe. [12] Having damage to these specific structures and their connections decreases cortical activity, thus inhibiting the ability to properly interact and relate to others.

Research also suggests that socially deprived children have imbalances with hormones associated with affiliative and positive social behaviour, specifically oxytocin and vasopressin. Institutionalized children showed a marked decrease in vasopressin and oxytocin levels while interacting with their caregivers compared to controls. Failure to receive proper social interaction at a young age disrupts normal neuroendocrine system developments that mediate social behaviour. [13] Social deprivation leads to decreased dopamine D2 receptors. The dopamine system plays a role in changes in social behavior which in this case is caused by social deprivation. [14]

Mental illness

A lack of social networking predisposes people to mental illness. [15] Mental illness can be attributed to instability within the individual. Society provides a sense of stability and socially deprived people fail to fit within this social structure. [6] It becomes even more difficult for a person to fit in once labeled mentally ill because they now also carry a social stigma and receive a negative social attitude from the community. [16]

Social deprivation is difficult to dissect because certain issues that may be considered outcomes of social exclusion may also be factored into causes of social stigma. [17] Outcomes of adult social deprivation may include young parenthood, adult homelessness, lack of qualifications, or residence in social housing – yet all of these factors may cause society to treat the individual with disdain or intolerance, thus furthering their exclusion. These reciprocal influences can become an unfortunate cycle for an individual who requires social or financial assistance to survive, particularly in a society that excludes those who are deemed abnormal.

This apparent cycle of alienation can cause feelings of helplessness where the only foreseeable resolution may be suicide. There is an identified link between severe mental illness and subsequent suicide. [18] One predictor of suicide is a lack of social integration. Dating back to the late nineteenth century, Durkheim illustrated that highly integrated societies with strong social bonds and a high degree of social cohesion have low suicide rates. Social integration consists of many sources such as religious, social, and political memberships. Relationships within the community and other individuals can create a better quality of life that decreases the chance of becoming mentally ill and committing suicide.

Over 500 studies have been screened and the conclusions show a strong correlation between social isolation and an increase in anxiety and depression. [19] The social isolation of young people leads to higher levels of cortisol. Cortisol is a stress hormone and having too much of it over a long period can lead to anxiety disorders. [20]

Socioeconomic factors

A lack of equal distribution of resources is fueled by an increasing economic gap. The focus of power on the upper status creates disparity and loss of privileges within the lower class. The lower socioeconomic statuses, in turn, become socially deprived based on the lack of access to freedoms. Loss of power is associated with a lack of opportunity and political voice, which restricts participation in the community. [6] Non-participation in the labour market and lack of access to basic services reduces the inclusion of social relations. Social relations consist of events such as social activities, support in times of need, and ability to "get out and about". [21] For these children, initial exposure to such events is incorporated within the education system.

Although there are many factors involved in social deprivation, research has indicated that the school system's intervention can allow at-risk children the chance to improve their status. A positive educational experience plays an important role in allowing such children to advance in society. The High/Scope Perry Preschool Project [22] was implemented to research the results of providing preschool programs to socioeconomically disadvantaged children. A population of at-risk children was identified and randomly assigned to two groups: program or no program. The ultimate goal was to improve the selected children's quality of life through the educational system and later on as adults. Compared to students not enrolled in the program, students who were enrolled completed a longer high-school education, scored higher on tests of scholastic achievement and intellectual performance, had lower lifetime criminal arrest rates, and reported significantly higher monthly earnings as adults. These findings indicate that children who are experiencing non-educational social deprivation may benefit from a sensitive, positive educational experience.

COVID-19 and social deprivation

During the COVID-19 pandemic people were forced to quarantine and therefore experienced social deprivation. While the pandemic was at its peak people needed to stay socially distanced and quarantined. This meant that people were forced to socially isolate leading to social deprivation. During and following this period there has been a spike in mental health issues and by using life theory scientists can predict that this will affect the social development of younger people later on in their lives. [23]

Further reading

Rao, N., & Fisher, P. A. (2021, September 27). The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on child ... - Wiley Online Library. society for research in child development. Retrieved September 3, 2022, from https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cdev.13653

Smith, K. e, & Pollak, S. d. (2021, December 31). early life stress and perceived social isolation influence how children use value information to guide behavior. society for research in child development. Retrieved September 3, 2022, from https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cdev.13727

Amith, C. (2021). Covid 19 pandemic and its impact on children - pimr.org.in. DOAJ. Retrieved September 7, 2022, from https://www.pimr.org.in/2020-vol8-issue-3/Editorial_V1.pdf

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of mental disorders</span> Etiology of psychopathology

A mental disorder is an impairment of the mind disrupting normal thinking, feeling, mood, behavior, or social interactions, and accompanied by significant distress or dysfunction. The causes of mental disorders are very complex and vary depending on the particular disorder and the individual. Although the causes of most mental disorders are not fully understood, researchers have identified a variety of biological, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the development or progression of mental disorders. Most mental disorders result in a combination of several different factors rather than just a single factor.

Solitude, also known as social withdrawal, is a state of seclusion or isolation, meaning lack of socialisation. Effects can be either positive or negative, depending on the situation. Short-term solitude is often valued as a time when one may work, think, or rest without disturbance. It may be desired for the sake of privacy. Long-term solitude may stem from soured relationships, loss of loved ones, deliberate choice, infectious disease, mental disorders, neurological disorders such as circadian rhythm sleep disorder, or circumstances of employment or situation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mental health</span> Level of human psychological well-being

Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior. According to World Health Organization (WHO), it is a "state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute to his or her community". It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making. Mental health includes subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others. From the perspectives of positive psychology or holism, mental health may include an individual's ability to enjoy life and to create a balance between life activities and efforts to achieve psychological resilience. Cultural differences, personal philosophy, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how one defines "mental health". Some early signs related to mental health difficulties are sleep irritation, lack of energy, lack of appetite, thinking of harming oneself or others, self-isolating, and frequently zoning out.

A form of child abuse, child neglect is an act of caregivers that results in depriving a child of their basic needs, such as the failure to provide adequate supervision, health care, clothing, or housing, as well as other physical, emotional, social, educational, and safety needs. All societies have established that there are necessary behaviours a caregiver must provide for a child to develop physically, socially, and emotionally. Causes of neglect may result from several parenting problems including mental disorders, unplanned pregnancy, substance use disorder, unemployment, over employment, domestic violence, and, in special cases, poverty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child poverty</span> Children living in poverty

Child poverty refers to the state of children living in poverty and applies to children from poor families and orphans being raised with limited or no state resources. UNICEF estimates that 356 million children live in extreme poverty. It is estimated that 1 billion children lack at least one essential necessity such as housing, regular food, or clean water. Children are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as adults and the poorest children are twice as likely to die before the age of 5 compared to their wealthier peers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strain theory (sociology)</span> Theory that social structures within society may pressure citizens to commit crime

In the fields of sociology and criminology, strain theory is a theoretical perspective that aims to explain the relationship between social structure, social values or goals, and crime. Strain theory was originally introduced by Robert King Merton (1938), and argues that society's dominant cultural values and social structure causes strain, which may encourage citizens to commit crimes. Following on the work of Émile Durkheim's theory of anomie, strain theory has been advanced by Robert King Merton (1938), Albert K. Cohen (1955), Richard Cloward, Lloyd Ohlin (1960), Neil Smelser (1963), Robert Agnew (1992), Steven Messner, Richard Rosenfeld (1994) and Jie Zhang (2012).

Gender is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Social isolation is a state of complete or near-complete lack of contact between an individual and society. It differs from loneliness, which reflects temporary and involuntary lack of contact with other humans in the world. Social isolation can be an issue for individuals of any age, though symptoms may differ by age group.

Hospitalism was a pediatric diagnosis used in the 1930s to describe infants who wasted away while in a hospital. The symptoms could include decreased physical development and disruption of perceptual-motor skills and language. In the first half of the 20th century, hospitalism was discovered to be linked to social deprivation between an infant and its caregiver. The term was in use in 1945, but the term can be traced back as early as 1897.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Socioeconomic status</span> Economic and social measure of a persons affluence and/or influence

Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's access to economic resources and social position in relation to others. When analyzing a family's SES, the household income and the education and occupations of its members are examined, whereas for an individual's SES only their own attributes are assessed. Recently, research has revealed a lesser-recognized attribute of SES as perceived financial stress, as it defines the "balance between income and necessary expenses". Perceived financial stress can be tested by deciphering whether a person at the end of each month has more than enough, just enough, or not enough money or resources. However, SES is more commonly used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal deprivation</span> Work on the effects of separating infants/young children from their mother

Maternal deprivation is a scientific term summarising the early work of psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby on the effects of separating infants and young children from their mother. Although the effect of loss of the mother on the developing child had been considered earlier by Freud and other theorists, Bowlby's work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospital and institutional care led to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organization's report on the mental health of homeless children in post-war Europe whilst he was head of the Department for Children and Parents at the Tavistock Clinic in London after World War II. The result was the monograph Maternal Care and Mental Health published in 1951, which sets out the maternal deprivation hypothesis.

In the context of caregiving, neglect is a form of abuse where the perpetrator, who is responsible for caring for someone who is unable to care for themselves, fails to do so. It can be a result of carelessness, indifference, or unwillingness and abuse.

The social determinants of health in poverty describe the factors that affect impoverished populations' health and health inequality. Inequalities in health stem from the conditions of people's lives, including living conditions, work environment, age, and other social factors, and how these affect people's ability to respond to illness. These conditions are also shaped by political, social, and economic structures. The majority of people around the globe do not meet their potential best health because of a "toxic combination of bad policies, economics, and politics". Daily living conditions work together with these structural drivers to result in the social determinants of health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness and mental health</span>

In a study in Western societies, homeless people have a higher prevalence of mental illness when compared to the general population. They also are more likely to suffer from alcoholism and drug dependency. It is estimated that 20–25% of homeless people, compared with 6% of the non-homeless, have severe mental illness. Others estimate that up to one-third of the homeless have a mental illness. In January 2015, the most extensive survey ever undertaken found 564,708 people were homeless on a given night in the United States. Depending on the age group in question and how homelessness is defined, the consensus estimate as of 2014 was that, at minimum, 25% of the American homeless—140,000 individuals—were seriously mentally ill at any given point in time. 45% percent of the homeless—250,000 individuals—had any mental illness. More would be labeled homeless if these were annual counts rather than point-in-time counts. Being chronically homeless also means that people with mental illnesses are more likely to experience catastrophic health crises requiring medical intervention or resulting in institutionalization within the criminal justice system. Majority of the homeless population do not have a mental illness. Although there is no correlation between homelessness and mental health, those who are dealing with homelessness are struggling with psychological and emotional distress. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration conducted a study and found that in 2010, 26.2 percent of sheltered homeless people had a severe mental illness.

Occupational injustice derives from the concept of occupational justice, which originated in 1997 with social scientists/ occupational therapists Ann Wilcock of Australia and Elizabeth Townsend of Canada. As a particular application of social justice, occupational injustice occurs when a person is denied, excluded from or deprived of opportunity to pursue meaningful occupations or when unchosen occupations are imposed upon them thus limiting life satisfaction. The construct of occupational rights stems from human rights but focuses on the inherent right of individuals to participate in occupations, construed as their personally meaningful and goal-directed use of time. Through this participation, occupational rights contribute to fulfillment and self-actualization. Groups of people that may be vulnerable to experiencing occupational injustices include cultural, religious, and ethnic minority groups, child labourers, the unemployed, prisoners, persons with substance use disorder, residents of institutions, refugees, and/or women.

Mental health inequality refers to the differences in the quality, access, and health care different communities and populations receive for mental health services. Globally, the World Health Organization estimates that 350 million people are affected with depressive disorders. Mental health can be defined as an individual's well-being and/or the absence of clinically defined mental illness. Inequalities that can occur in mental healthcare may include mental health status, access to and quality of care, and mental health outcomes, which may differ across populations of different race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, sex, gender, socioeconomic statuses, education level, and geographic location. Social determinants of health, more specifically the social determinants of mental health, that can influence an individual's susceptibility to developing mental disorders and illnesses include, but are not limited to, economic status, education level, demographics, geographic location and genetics.

Suicide awareness is a proactive effort to raise awareness around suicidal behaviors. It is focused on reducing social stigmas and ambiguity by bringing attention to suicide statistically and sociologically, and by encouraging positive dialogue and engagement to prevent suicide. Suicide awareness is linked to suicide prevention as both address suicide education and the dissemination of information to ultimately decrease the rate of suicide. Awareness is the first stage that can ease the need for prevention. Awareness signifies a fundamental consciousness of the threat, while prevention focuses on stopping the act. Suicide awareness is not a medical engagement but a combination of medical, social, emotional and financial counseling. Suicide awareness in adolescents focuses on the age group between 10–24 years, beginning with the onset of puberty.

Numerous studies around the world have found a relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health. There are higher rates of mental illness in groups with lower socioeconomic status (SES), but there is no clear consensus on the exact causative factors. The two principal models that attempt to explain this relationship are the social causation theory, which posits that socioeconomic inequality causes stress that gives rise to mental illness, and the downward drift approach, which assumes that people predisposed to mental illness are reduced in socioeconomic status as a result of the illness. Most literature on these concepts dates back to the mid-1990s and leans heavily towards the social causation model.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic</span> Psychological aspect of viral outbreak

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mental health of people across the globe. The pandemic has caused widespread anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. According to the UN health agency WHO, in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, prevalence of common mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety, went up by more than 25 percent. The pandemic has damaged social relationships, trust in institutions and in other people, has caused changes in work and income, and has imposed a substantial burden of anxiety and worry on the population. Women and young people face the greatest risk of depression and anxiety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children</span> Overview of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children

A systematic review notes that children with COVID-19 have milder effects and better prognoses than adults. However, children are susceptible to "multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children" (MIS-C), a rare but life-threatening systemic illness involving persistent fever and extreme inflammation following exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

References

  1. ↑ Fitzgerald F (1985). "Space-age snake oil". Obesity and Consumer Fraud. 78 (3): 231–240. doi:10.1080/00325481.1985.11699127. PMID   4034447.
  2. ↑ Antaki C (1994). "Causal talk". Explaining and arguing: the social organization of accounts. SAGE. ISBN   9781446227886.
  3. ↑ Carney W, Lymer L (2015). "Elements of public relations and marketing communications". Fundamentals of public relations and marketing communications in Canada. University of Alberta. ISBN   9781772120622.
  4. ↑ do Vale S, Maciel R (2019). "The structure of students' parents' social representations of teachers". Trends in Psychology. 27 (1): 265–278. doi: 10.9788/TP2019.1-19 . S2CID   160033505.
  5. ↑ "Loneliness and Social Isolation — Tips for Staying Connected". National Institute on Aging. Retrieved 2022-10-05.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Bassouk, E.L.; Donelan, B. (2003). "Social Deprivation". In Green, B.L. (ed.), Trauma Intervention in War and Peace. New York City: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  7. ↑ Pierson, J. (2002). Tackling Social Exclusion. London: Routledge.
  8. ↑ Johnson, J.S.; Newport, E.L. (1991). "Critical Period Effects on Universal Properties of Language: The Status hjof Subjacency in the Acquisition of a Second Language. Cognition . 39. pp. 215–258. doi : 10.1016/0010-0277(91)90054-8.
  9. ↑ Weitin, W. (2007). Psychology: Themes and Variations (eighth ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
  10. 1 2 Laming, D. (2004). Understanding Human Motivation: What Makes People Tick? Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  11. ↑ Chugani, H.T.; Behen, M.E.; Muzik, O.; Juhasz, C.; Nagy, F.; Chugani, D. C. (2001). "Local Brain Functional Activity Following Early Deprivation: A Study of Postinstitutionalized Romanian Orphans". NeuroImage . 14. pp. 1,290–1,301.
  12. ↑ Eluvathingal, T.J.; Chugani, H.T.; Behen, M.E.; Juha'sz, C.; Muzik, O.; Maqbool, M.; et al. (2006). "Abnormal Brain Connectivity in Children after Early Severe Socioemotional Deprivation: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study". Pediatrics . 117. pp. 2,093–2,100.
  13. ↑ Pollak and colleagues, as cited in Wismer Fries, Ziegler, Kurian, Jacoris, and Pollak, 2005.
  14. ↑ Zhang, Xueni; Xun, Yufeng; Wang, Limin; Zhang, Jing; Hou, Wenjuan; Ma, Huan; Cai, Wenqi; Li, Laifu; Guo, Qianqian; Li, Yitong; Lv, Zijian; Jia, Rui; Tai, Fadao; He, Zhixiong (2021-08-15). "Involvement of the dopamine system in the effect of chronic social isolation during adolescence on social behaviors in male C57 mice". Brain Research. 1765: 147497. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147497. ISSN   0006-8993. PMID   33894223. S2CID   233328862.
  15. ↑ Salvador-Carulla, L.; Rodríguez-Blázquez, C.; Velázquez, R.; García, R. (1999). "Trastornos psiquiátricos en retraso mental: Evaluación y diagnóstico" ["Psychiatric Disorders in Mental Retardation: Assessment and Diagnosis"]. Revista Electrónica de Psiquiatría . 3. pp. 1–17.
  16. ↑ Gordon, P.; Chiriboga, J.; Feldman, D.; Perrone, K. (2004). "Attitudes Regarding Interpersonal Relationships with Persons with Mental Illness and Mental Retardation". Journal of Rehabilitation . 70. pp. 50–57.
  17. ↑ Hobcraft, J. (2002). "Social Exclusion and the Generations. In J. Hills, J. Le Grand & D. Piachaud (eds.), Understanding Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  18. ↑ Foster, T.; Gillespie, K.; McClelland, R. (1997). "Mental Disorders and Suicide in Northern Ireland". British Journal of Psychiatry . 170(5). pp. 447-452. doi : 10.1192/bjp.170.5.447.
  19. ↑ Almeida, Isabelle Lina de Laia; Rego, Jaqueline Ferraz; Teixeira, Amanda Carvalho Girardi; Moreira, Marília Rodrigues (2021-10-04). "Social isolation and its impact on child and adolescent development: a systematic review". Revista Paulista de Pediatria. 40: e2020385. doi: 10.1590/1984-0462/2022/40/2020385 . ISSN   0103-0582. PMC   8543788 . PMID   34614137.
  20. ↑ Almeida, Isabelle Lina de Laia; Rego, Jaqueline Ferraz; Teixeira, Amanda Carvalho Girardi; Moreira, Marília Rodrigues (2021-10-04). "Social isolation and its impact on child and adolescent development: a systematic review". Revista Paulista de Pediatria. 40: e2020385. doi: 10.1590/1984-0462/2022/40/2020385 . ISSN   0103-0582. PMC   8543788 . PMID   34614137.
  21. ↑ Gordon, D., Adelman, L.; Ashworth, K.; Bradshaw, J.; Levitas, R.; Middleton, R.; Pantazis, C.; Patsios, D.; Payne, S.; Townsend, P.; Williams, J. (2000). Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
  22. ↑ Schweinhart, L.J.; Barnes, H.V.; Weikhart, D.P. (2005). "Significant Benefits, the High/Scope Perry Pre-School Study through age 27. In N. Frost (ed.), Child Welfare: Major Themes in Health and Social Sciences. New York City: Routledge.
  23. ↑ Benner, Aprile D.; Mistry, Rashmita S. (December 2020). "Child Development During the COVID-19 Pandemic Through a Life Course Theory Lens". Child Development Perspectives. 14 (4): 236–243. doi:10.1111/cdep.12387. ISSN   1750-8592. PMC   7675461 . PMID   33230400.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.