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The Soninke-Marabout Wars were a series of 19th-century civil wars across southern Senegambia pitting the traditional ruling classes of various states, mostly animist or only nominally Muslim, against Islamic reformers led by the marabout class. French and British forces frequently became involved in these conflicts, providing them an opportunity to extend colonial power into the hinterland.
In 19th century Senegambia, the term 'Soninke' designated the animist of nominally Muslim traditional warrior ruling class. These groups were mostly Mandinka rather than ethnically Soninke. Other terms for the traditional animist ruling class included ceddo and Nyancho .
Two principal factors laid the groundwork for the outbreak of widespread violence in Senegambia in the 19th century. The first was the increasing prominence of Muslims in traditionally non-Islamic states. Since the 17th century an increasingly arid climate had pushed Fula pastoralists further and further south looking for pasture for their herds. [1] Among them were many Torodbe refugees from Futa Toro who progressively gained power and influence in the region. [2] As a result, a series of Fula jihads across West Africa had established theocratic regimes in Boundou, Futa Toro, and the Futa Jallon. The Fula population of Mandinka states such as Kaabu, Kombo, Niumi, Wuli and others had also increased. These states were ruled by traditional kings whose legitimacy was founded on traditional animist rituals and, in many cases, a heavily syncretized Islam. Muslim marabouts had for generations been an important element of the social fabric, but remained politically dependent on the animist rulers. [3] [4] The Marabouts' desire to directly rule theocratic Islamic states led them to rebel against the traditional kings. [5]
The second important factor was the Atlantic trade in slaves and various commodities. European demand for slaves had helped create a culture of endemic slave raiding and slavery in African societies, which persisted after the gradual abolition of the trade in the early 19th century. This institutionalized violence empowered local warlords. both Muslim and animist, while also creating widespread resentment against them. [6] [7] These leaders sold slaves to purchase firearms. When the European demand for slaves dried up, they turned to peanut cultivation to continue supplying their military forces. [1] In addition, occasional European intervention in African politics undermined the traditional rulers' legitimacy. [7]
By 1818, the Fula-led Islamic states of Futa Toro, Futa Jallon and Boundou had created a 'holy alliance' against their animist neighbors. [1] By the 1830s Muslim rebellions against the Soninke rulers had spread widely across southern Senegambia. [8]
In 1850 Muslim communities in Kombo, around Banjul, joined in a rebellion against the Soninke king Suling Jatta. The British soon became entangled in the conflict, using it as an opportunity to add additional territory to their colony. They stormed the Marabout stonghold at Sabbajee, but failed to quel the unrest. After years of low-level conflict, a combined British and French force once again attacked Sabbajee. This engagement did not decisively end the war in Kombo, but a year later the parties signed treaties to re-establish peace. [9]
Kaabu, a federation of Mandinka kingdoms across what it now The Gambia, Casamance, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau, was the dominant economic and military power of southern Senegambia, and the main target of the Islamic alliance. The Imamate of Futa Jallon began taking important trade towns and forcibly converting the populations in 1805. In the 1840s, local Mandinka Muslims attacked Sedhiou. In 1850, the important fortress of Berekolon fell to the Futa Jallon forces, and in 1862 the core territory of Jimara followed. The war culminated in the 1864 Battle of Kansala, where the Kaabu capital and last remaining major town was destroyed. [1]
Maba Diakhou Ba was a prominent marabout in the kingdom of Badibou (also known as Rip), on the northern bank of the Gambia river. After retaliating against a ceddo raid, a civil war broke out pitting Maba and his followers against Mansa Jeriba. His success attracted more supporters, and he launched his jihad into Serer territory. [10] At the Battle of Nandjigui in 1859 the Marabouts killed the Maad Saloum Kumba Ndama Mbodj. [11] By 1861 Maba controlled most of Saloum and part of Niumi. [10] After repeatedly clashing with French colonial forces, he was eventually defeated and killed during an invasion of the Kingdom of Sine at the Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune by Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof. [12] [13]
By the 1860s, the Soninke Kingdom of Wuli had been reduced to a vassal of Boundou by continuous marabout raiding. [14] The Wuli ruling family, however, remained animist. For this the wulimansa was targeted and killed by the Sarakholle marabout Mahmadu Lamine Drame in 1887. He then set up a base at Toubakouta in the Kingdom of Niani, devastating the economy of the region, until eventually being defeated by French forces. [15] [16]
The Mandinka or Malinke are a West African ethnic group primarily found in southern Mali, The Gambia, southern Senegal and eastern Guinea. Numbering about 11 million, they are the largest subgroup of the Mandé peoples and one of the largest ethnolinguistic groups in Africa. They speak the Manding languages in the Mande language family, which are a lingua franca in much of West Africa. Virtually all of Mandinka people are adherent to Islam, mostly based on the Maliki jurisprudence. They are predominantly subsistence farmers and live in rural villages. Their largest urban center is Bamako, the capital of Mali.
Gabu is the largest town in eastern Guinea-Bissau and capital of the Gabu Region.
The Soninke people are a West African Mande-speaking ethnic group found in Mali, southern Mauritania, eastern Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea. They speak the Soninke language, also called the Serakhulle or Azer language, which is one of the Mande languages. Soninke people were the founders of the ancient empire of Ghana or Wagadou c. 200–1240 CE, Subgroups of Soninke include the Jakhanke, Maraka and Wangara. When the Ghana empire was destroyed, the resulting diaspora brought Soninkes to Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinée-Conakry, modern-day Republic of Ghana, Kano in Nigeria, and Guinea-Bissau where some of this trading diaspora was called Wangara, leading to the saying “when Americans landed on the moon, a Soninke was already there” in Senegal, with other versions across West Africa.
Kaabu (1537–1867), also written Gabu, Ngabou, and N'Gabu, was a federation of Mandinka kingdoms in the Senegambia region centered within modern northeastern Guinea-Bissau, large parts of today's Gambia, and extending into Koussanar, Koumpentoum, and the Casamance in Senegal.
The Empire of Great Fulo, also known as the Denanke Kingdom or Denianke Kingdom, was a Pulaar kingdom of Senegal, which dominated the Futa Toro region from the early 16th century to 1776.
Mamadu Diakhou Bâ, also known as Maba Jahou Bah, Ma Ba Diakhu, Ma Ba Diakho Ba, Ma Ba Jaaxu, Mabba Jaxu Ba, was a Muslim leader in West Africa during the 19th century. He was a disciple of the Tijaniyya Sufi brotherhood and became the Almami of Saloum.
There are various ethnic groups in Senegal. According to "CIA World Factbook: Senegal", the ethnic groups are Wolof (39%); Fula (27.5%)); Serer group ; Mandinka (4.9%); Jola (4.2%); Soninke (2.4%); other 5.4%, and other minor ethnic groups like the Bassari, Maures or (Naarkajors)). Many subgroups of those can be further distinguished, based on religion, location and language. According to one 2005 estimate, there are at least twenty distinguishable groups of largely varying size.
Sédhiou is a town of Senegal, in Casamance area, nearby the Casamance river, with a population of 31,511 in 2023. It is the capital of the Sédhiou Region.
The Jakhanke -- also spelled Jahanka, Jahanke, Jahanque, Jahonque, Diakkanke, Diakhanga, Diakhango, Dyakanke, Diakhanké, Diakanké, or Diakhankesare -- are a Manding-speaking ethnic group in the Senegambia region, often classified as a subgroup of the larger Soninke. The Jakhanke have historically constituted a specialized caste of professional Muslim clerics (ulema) and educators. They are centered on one larger group in Guinea, with smaller populations in the eastern region of The Gambia, Senegal, and in Mali near the Guinean border. Although generally considered a branch of the Soninke, their language is closer to Western Manding languages such as Mandinka.
The Battle of Kansala or Turban Keloo was the siege of the capital of the Kaabu federation by the Imamate of Futa Jallon, allied with rebellious Fula people from Kaabu itself. The battle, which saw the town completely destroyed, ended Mandinka hegemony over Africa’s Atlantic coast begun by the Mali Empire.
Maad a Signig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof was the King of Sine in modern-day Senegal. Maad a Sinig means king of Sine. He ruled from 1853 until his death on 23 August 1871. He was the son of Maad Souka Ndela Joof and Lingeer Gnilane Jogoy Joof. His father – Maad Souka Ndela came from The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof founded by Maad Semou Njekeh Joof in the early 18th century, which was the third and last Royal House of Joof family of Sine and Saloum. His paternal family ruled three Kingdoms : Sine, Kingdom of Saloum and previously the Kingdom of Baol. They descended from Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof the 13th century King of Lâ (Laah) in Baol.
The medieval history of the Serer people of Senegambia is partly characterised by resisting Islamization from perhaps the 11th century during the Almoravid movement, to the 19th century Marabout movement of Senegambia and continuation of the old Serer paternal dynasties.
Koli Tenguella was a Fulani warrior and leader who was pivotal in establishing the Empire of Great Fulo.
Fuladu or Fuladugu is a historic region and former Fula kingdom in the Upper Casamance, in the south of Senegal, and including certain areas in The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau. It was the last independent pre-colonial state in the area, ceasing to exist in 1903.
Tenguella was a Fula silatigi or chief who founded a short-lived state in the upper Senegal river valley, a precursor of the Empire of Great Fulo. He was referred to as the Great Fulo or Great king of the Fulos in Portuguese documents of the time.
The Soninke-Marabout War of 1850 to 1856 was a civil war between factions of the Kingdom of Kombo in the Gambia. The war resulted from a dispute between the Soninke people – pagans who were the ruling class in Kombo – and the Marabouts – a radical Muslim group with no representation in the governance of Kombo, partially inspired by Jihad. The British Empire, to whom parts of Kombo had been ceded by the Soninke since 1816, was initially reluctant to intervene. However, during the course of the war, the British intervened on two occasions. British forces stormed the Marabout town of Sabbajee twice, in 1853, and again in 1855, razing the town following the second intervention.
Wuli was a Mandinka kingdom located on the north bank of the Gambia River in what is now the eastern portion of The Gambia and the Tambacounda region of Senegal. Ruled as an independent polity by the Wali family from the early 16th century until European colonialism in the late 19th, it controlled an important crossroads for trading routes linking the upper Niger river valley with the coast.
The Tenda or Tanda are an ethnolinguistic group living in the southern Senegal, northeastern Guinea-Bissau, and northern Guinea, comprising the Bassari, the Konyagui, the Bedik, and the Badiaranke.
Niani was a Mandinka kingdom located on the north bank of the Gambia River from approximately the 14th to the late 19th century in what is now The Gambia and Senegal.
Alfa Molo Balde was the founder of Fuladu, a kingdom in the Casamance region of modern-day Senegal.
